Universe Today

The NASA Apollo Program was a series of space flights that put the first human on the moon. Six of the space flights launched under this program ended up with successful lunar landings. These were Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17. Only Apollo 13 failed to accomplish the primary objective of landing on the moon.

There are probably two Apollo missions that the younger generations are familiar with – the first lunar landing, Apollo 11, and Apollo 13. The latter's immense popularity is largely because of the award winning 1995 movie starred by Tom Hanks, Kevin Bacon, and Bill Paxton. The movie was also entitled Apollo 13 and told the amazing tale of a failed mission that turned into a success story.

The movie, which got nominated for 9 Oscars and ended up winning Best Film Editing and Best Sound Mixing, was actually adapted from a book (entitled Lost Moon) co-written by one of the ill-fated flight's crew members, Jim Lovell.

Of course, who could ever forget Apollo 11? Neil Armstrong's declaration, "One small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." is a favorite quote in history books, articles (like this one), movies, and other forms of literature and art.

The NASA Apollo Program was a rapid paced program aimed at overtaking the Soviets in the Space Race. Before the Apollo 11 mission, the Soviet Union was pretty much ahead. The Soviets already captured the record of sending the first man to outer space along with other space exploration achievements. In that same monumental mission in April 12, 1961 alone, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin also became the first man to orbit around Earth.

To match that feat, then President John F. Kennedy proclaimed in the succeeding month that America would put a man on the Moon before the decade would end. This became the focal point of the Apollo Program which achieved success when the Apollo 11 mission landed on the moon on July 20, 1969.

In the recent 40th anniversary of the NASA Apollo 11 mission, a number of crew members belonging to different missions in the Apollo Program unanimously wished that America would one day rekindle its desire to conduct daring space exploration missions.

The next goal is the planet Mars. While rovers already roam Mars' surface, only until the first man would set foot on the Red Planet will a space program accomplish the same level of achievement as that of the NASA Apollo Program.

Still think the Apollo missions, particularly the lunar landings, were part of an elaborate hoax? Click on this link to read what the Japanese SELENE Lunar Mission discovered.

NASA has a huge collection of reliable links related to the Apollo missions.

Episodes about the moon from Astronomy Cast. Lend us your ears!

Shooting Lasers at the Moon and Losing Contact with Rovers
The Moon Part I

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Apollo 11 was the first space mission to successfully land man on the surface of the Moon. 17 words to sum up the most monumental accomplishment of the space program. NASA has set its eyes farther out, but no man has seen himself in a more spectacular solar destination. President John F. Kennedy said: " I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." Apollo 11 met that goal when it was launched on July 16, 1969. Mission Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed on the Moon on July 20th, while Command Module Pilot Micheal Collins orbited above.

Apollo 11 was the second spaceflight for every member of the crew, making it the 3rd all veteran crew to go into space. The lunar module was named Eagle. The Command module was named Columbia for the feminine personification of the United States used traditionally in song and poetry. In addition to throngs of people crowding highways and beaches near the launch site, millions watched the event on television, with NASA Chief of Public Information providing commentary. President Richard Nixon viewed the proceedings from the White House.

Apollo 11 launched at 13:32 UTC atop a Saturn V rocket and entered orbit exactly 12 minutes later. After 1.5 orbits the third stage rocket pushed the spacecraft into its lunar trajectory. About 30 minutes later the command and service module pair separated from this last remaining Saturn V stage and docked with the lunar module still nestled in the lunar module adaptor. After the lunar module was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon. On July 19 Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. During the following 30 orbits, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis) about 20 kilometers southwest of the crater Sabine D (0.67408N, 23.47297E). The landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers along with the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or extra-vehicular activities (EVA) challenges.

There was a little known Soviet moon landing called Luna 15. Luna 15 was a last minute attempt to steal some of Apollo 11's publicity by being the first mission to return lunar soil to Earth, but after completing 86 communications sessions and 52 orbits of the Moon at various inclinations and altitudes, the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface on July 21, 1969. The mission was important in that it saw one of the first instances of Soviet/American cooperation when the USSR released Luna 15's flight plan to ensure it would not collide with Apollo 11.

The astronauts planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP)[18] and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through Eagle's twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his Portable Life Support System (PLSS). A redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch had not been followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM exit and entry.

There were many more mission highlights and interesting facts. For the official NASA page on the mission, click here. There is another indepth article on the topic here. Here on Universe Today we have some of the conversations that were not broadcast to the public from Apollo 11. Astronomy Cast offers a nice episode about rockets in general.

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The first Moon landing was arguably the most monumental achievement ever in the history of space exploration… to some, even any kind of exploration for that matter. Nearly everyone, American or not, is familiar with Neil Armstrong's announcement on July 20, 1969, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."

Not many people were optimistic when President John F. Kennedy set a goal for NASA to land a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. That challenge was pitched in front of Congress on May 25, 1961. A little over 8 years after, NASA hit the home run. With Michael Collins orbiting overhead on the Command Module, Neil Armstrong, followed by Buzz Aldrin, left the first footprints on lunar soil.

Five more lunar landings were accomplished in Apollo missions 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17. Yet, even Apollo 17's near perfect implementation, even with its vast collection of geological finds, paled in comparison to the euphoria generated by the first Moon landing. But then again, the first taste is always the sweetest.

The first Moon landing would not have been achieved without the dedication of Armstrong, Buzz, and Collins' supporting cast. Their backup crew was made up of James Lovell, William Sanders, and Fred Haise, Jr.

If some of those names sound familiar, here's a phrase that might help you remember, "Houston, we have problem." That's right, James or "Jim" Lovell and Fred Haise, Jr. were part of the Apollo 13 mission. Jim's role was played by Tom Hanks while Bill Paxton starred as Haise.

By the way, while we're at it, the correct transmission by Jim Lovell was, "Houston we've had a problem." Apollo 13 was the only unsuccessful attempt by NASA for a Moon landing.

The callsign of the Lunar Module (the part of the spacecraft that landed on the Moon) was Eagle and the Command Module's was Columbia. The third component of the spacecraft, the Service Module is only dubbed SM-107.

When Armstrong declared, "The Eagle has landed.", the Lunar Module (LM-5) had already touched down on the Sea of Tranquility. At that instant, Armstrong also changed the LM's callsign to Tranquility Base.

On hindsight, one of the light moments of the mission happened prior to the moonwalk, when Armstrong found it difficult to squeeze through the hatch because his Portable Life Support System (PLSS) got in the way. Imagine what a blooper it could have been had they failed to disembark.

Until NASA finally sends astronauts to Mars (robots are doing the exploration for us as I write this), the first Moon landing will have to keep its title as NASA's crowning achievement.

Some people actually think the Apollo missions, particularly the lunar landings, were part of an elaborate hoax. Click on this link to read what the Japanese SELENE Lunar Mission discovered.

NASA has a huge collection of reliable links related to the Apollo missions.

Episodes about the moon from Astronomy Cast. Lend us your ears!

Shooting Lasers at the Moon and Losing Contact with Rovers
The Moon Part I

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The moon landing hoax is a conspiracy theory that gained prominence when Fox television featured a program titled "Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?" The idea was that the landings were just productions a la Hollywood films. We know better, and there are numerous facts that back the real story. In fact, many of them are adjudged authentic by organizations outside NASA.

Nevertheless, the moon landing hoax theory is an interesting one and we thought you'd want to hear about it. However, we've also included rebuttals from scientists to make sure you don't go to bed believing it.

First point from the hoax believers – Why aren't there stars in images showing the astronauts walking on the Moon? The sky was dark but there were no stars. Shouldn't they have been very visible since the Moon doesn't have clouds?

Expert photographers are quick to spot the reason here. You can't see lights in the background if the foreground object is very bright. The astronauts suits, which were white, served as very good reflectors of light coming from the sun. Also, since the landings were shot under daylight, it would be difficult even for the naked eye to spot the stars.

Second point – Why are the footprints well preserved when in fact the lunar dust is supposed to be very fine and devoid of moisture and strong gravity?

Since the dust is silicate, they have the tendency to stick to gather together like that when in vacuum. The Mythbusters demonstrated this phenomena in the episode "NASA Moon Landing".

Third point – The American flag flapped as it was planted … but there is no wind on the moon!

This can be explained by elementary physics. Anything that is initially set into motion will readily continue moving if no external force acts in the opposite direction. So when the astronauts were on the act of planting the flag, they were able to set the flag into motion. Naturally, under the sole influence of a very weak gravitational field, the flag appeared to flap.

There are still many observations that the conspiracy theorists have pointed out and all of them have been rebutted substantially. Among the best evidences that the astronauts were able to bring home were the moon rocks. Studies conducted by various academic and research institutions on them revealed that their composition, characteristics and age are unlike those naturally found here on Earth.

Here in Universe Today, we've got lots of articles that won't make conspiracy theorists happy. Read the Chandrayaan findings. We've also got an article aptly dubbed Still Mythbusting.

Here's a good read at NASA: The Great Moon Hoax. Oh, and there's the Mars Hoax too.

There are some interesting episodes from Astronomy Cast that we'd like to recommend:

The Source of Atmospheres, the Vanishing Moon, and a Glow After Sunset

The Moon, Part 1

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The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera has taken a second look at the Apollo 11 landing site. These images were taken before LRO reached its science orbit of 50 km (31 miles) above the Moon, but the lighting is different from the previous images it took of this region, providing more detail and a whole new look at this historic site. This time the Sun was 28 degrees higher in the sky, making for smaller shadows and bringing out subtle brightness differences on the surface. The look and feel of the site has changed dramatically. See below for a close-up view.
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Of the three astronauts who served as crew for the historical Apollo 11 mission, Michael Collins is perhaps the least popular. And having a very prominent Irish revolutionary leader for a namesake sometimes injects a certain degree of confusion. Nevertheless, unless Universe Today has shifted to featuring IRA stories, we all know which Michael Collins I’m referring to now.

Michael Collins is the guy who’s largely responsible for why superstar astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made it back to Earth. Had he opted to jettison them (well, don’t ask me why he would do that), our youngsters would have missed out on Buzz’s rap collaboration with Snoop Dogg.

Alright, if you haven’t figured it out yet, he flew the Command Module around the Moon while Aldrin and Armstrong were busy making footprints on the lunar soil. You see, the Lunar Module, which the two A’s used to land on the moon, was not equipped to make the long trip back home – the Command Module (along with the Service Module) was.

So, to get back to Earth, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin’s Lunar Module had to rendezvous with the rest of the Apollo spacecraft, which Michael Collins was manning.

Michael Collins was born on October 31, 1930 in Rome, Italy. He’s actually an Irish American although we’re not sure whether he’s related with the Irish patriot mentioned earlier. Before joining NASA, he studied at the United States Military Academy, got drafted to the US Air Force, and pursued further studies at the USAF Experimental Flight Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base.

While Neil Armstrong opted to live a low-key life after Apollo 11, Michael Collins accepted relatively high-profile jobs. First, he served as Assistant Secretary of Public Affairs in the Department of State. He also became director of the National Air and Space Museum. After that, he then moved on to be undersecretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Before setting up his own business, he also held the Vice President position at LTV Aerospace.

Just like his crewmates, Michael Collins has been embraced by pop culture. There’s the Jethro Tull song, “For Michael Collins, Jeffrey and Me”, which touches on the feelings of being left behind. There’s the manga entitled 20th Century Boys, the mockumentary Operation lune, even a children’s book with the title “The Man Who Went to the Far Side of the Moon: The Story of Apollo 11 Astronaut Michael Collins”.

Allow us to share with you two articles featuring Michael Collins:

Who Flew the Ship When Mike Collins Went to Sleep?
Still Mythbusting

Here are two from NASA

Statement from Apollo 11 Astronaut Michael Collins
Biographical Data

Tired eyes? Let your ears help you learn for a change. Here are some episodes fromAstronomy Cast that just might suit your taste:
How Old is the Universe?
The Big Bang and Cosmic Microwave Background

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On July 20, 1969, the Apollo 11 mission fulfilled President John F. Kennedy’s objective of putting a man on the moon before the decade of the 1960’s was over. Of the daring trio that made up Apollo 11’s crew, it was mission commander Neil Alden Armstrong who made the first step on the lunar surface.

What he said on that monumental day still reverberates in the halls of science and technology: “That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.” Even up to the present, that event has arguably remained unsurpassed in terms of significance.

Sure, there are now robots on Mars. But until somebody actually steps on the Red Planet, the first man to have ever walked on the moon will have to remain at center stage.

Neil Armstrong was not a stranger to firsts. As command pilot Gemini 8, his first spaceflight, he and pilot David Scott performed the first ever docking maneuver in space between two spacecraft.

It is said that after his Gemini 11 mission, when he and his wife were asked to join President Lyndon B. Johnson in a 24-day goodwill tour in South America, Armstrong impressed everyone when he spoke to their dignitary hosts in their own language.

After his historical moonwalk in 1969, Neil Armstrong lived a relatively low-key life. He briefly served as Deputy Associate Administrator for aeronautics for the Office of Advanced Research and Technology (DARPA) before finally resigning from NASA.

He proceeded to teach at the University of Cincinnati’s Department of Aerospace Engineering, staying there for 8 years.

What followed was a string of invitations from various companies and political groups, most of which he turned down. There were some that he accepted but only in the capacity as spokesman or as member of the board of directors.

Unlike Buzz Aldrin, the second man to have stepped on the moon, who has always been actively promoting space exploration, Neil Armstrong prefers to enjoy a relatively private life. Ever since 1994, he has even refrained from signing autographs. He is also protective of his name and his popular lunar landing quote.

Despite having chosen a rather low-key profile, Neil Armstrong has not escaped numerous awards and honors. There’s the Presidential Medal of Freedom, Congressional Space Medal of Honor, schools named after him, a song named and written in tribute to him, and so on. Who said it’s easy to be the first man on the moon?

Speaking of the first man on the moon, here's an article at Universe Today with exactly the same title. We've also got a funny one about Neil Armstrong to go with that.

NASA has a biography page for him. How about another one from the same site?

Episodes about the moon from Astronomy Cast. Lend us your ears!

Shooting Lasers at the Moon and Losing Contact with Rovers
The Moon Part I

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From 1961 to 1975, NASA launched a series of space missions that climaxed when man finally walked on the moon on July 20, 1969. Known as the Apollo missions, these manned and unmanned space expeditions have contributed a plethora of information not only for space exploration but also for all the fields of science and technology.

The Apollo missions were set into motion when, at the early part of the decade – on May 25, 1961, then President John F. Kennedy boldly laid down the goal of landing a man on the Moon before the decade would end. The cost of all those missions was rather very expensive, approximately $19.4 B. Still, no other space program has achieved a more ambitious goal in so short a span of time and backed (at the start) by limited technological advancements.

When Neil Armstrong, accompanied by Buzz Aldrin and with Michael Collins orbiting above, uttered the immortalized words, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." during the first manned lunar landing, the Apollo missions did not stop. In fact, Apollo 11 paved the way for five more lunar landings.

During the lunar landings of Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17, astronauts walked on the moon, studied soil mechanics, brought home moon rocks, and gleaned lots of information regarding heat flow, lunar ranging, solar winds, and magnetic fields. Apollo 13, although considered a part failure, is also viewed by many as a part success as the crew were able to navigate their spacecraft safely back to Earth despite going up against seemingly insurmountable odds.

The first few unmanned Apollo missions formed the integral backbone of the succeeding missions. These missions included tests for the Saturn 1 rocket, effects of premature shutdown, fuel tank behaviors, the Command, Lunar and Service modules, as well as other procedures and related technologies.

Because of financial constraints a number of Apollo missions were cancelled in the 1970s. Among them were the Apollo 18, 19, and 20 missions.

Not all of the missions that were supposed to push through were successful. Tragedy fell on the Apollo missions when a fire in the command module killed three astronauts (supposed to comprise the first crewed flight) on January 27, 1967. That has since been dubbed as Apollo 1.

There are still plans to return to the moon. On January 14, 2004, then President Bush announced the goal of bringing mankind once again to the surface of the moon.

Still think the Apollo missions, particularly the lunar landings, were part of an elaborate hoax? Click on this link to read what the Japanese SELENE Lunar Mission discovered.

NASA has a huge collection of reliable links related to the Apollo missions… why, of course.

Episodes about the moon from Astronomy Cast. Lend us your ears!

Shooting Lasers at the Moon and Losing Contact with Rovers
The Moon Part I

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Of all the great astronauts (I know, they all are), Buzz Aldrin is undoubtedly the one who has managed to bring his popularity from the 60's and 70's well into the 21st century.

His name's easy for kids to recall especially after the showing of Pixar's Toy Story where a spaceman action figure named Buzz Lightyear (the film makers copied his first name) shares the limelight with Tom Hank's main character, Woody.

Earlier this year (2009), Buzz (not the action figure) collaborated with Snoop Dogg, Quincy Jones, Talib Kweli, and Soulja boy to record a rap single and video entitled "Rocket Experience". The recording was created to commemorate the 40th year since he and Neil Armstrong stepped on the moon to make "… one giant leap for mankind."

Actually, Neil Armstrong was the one who uttered those words and was the first to step on the moon. Buzz Aldrin followed right after, making him the second man to step on the lunar surface.

Buzz Aldrin was born in January 20, 1930 as Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr. However, since one of his sisters couldn't pronounce the word 'brother' correctly, repeatedly uttering 'buzzer' instead, the shortened version 'buzz' stuck.

After graduating from West Point in 1951, Buzz joined the US Air Force and was sent to the Korean War as a fighter pilot with a rank of Second Lieutenant. There, he managed to shoot down a couple of MiG-15s; one of which gave him the opportunity to take a photo of the pilot as he was ejecting. That photo landed on the June 8, 1953 issue of Life magazine.

He flew about 66 combat missions in that war before proceeding through a string of positions that included an aerial gunnery instructor, aide to the dean of faculty, flight commander, and finishing a doctorate degree at MIT.

In NASA, Buzz Aldrin was able to take part in the later Gemini missions. The last one, Gemini 12, saw him performing an EVA or Extra Vehicular Activity where he showed that astronauts could work outside their ship.

Then of course came his highly celebrated moon walk with his mission commander, Neil Armstrong on July 20, 1969.

Even up to this day, Buzz Aldrin is actively campaigning for more daring space explorations. Aside from his rap recording, Buzz also targeted the younger generations through a computer game in 1993 named "Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space".

Universe Today has a book review on Buzz Aldrin's Magnificent Desolation. We've also covered his rap with Snoop Dog.

Aside from a long list of pages of him at NASA, Buzz Aldrin also has a website named after him.

Tired eyes? Let your ears help you learn for a change. Here are some episodes fromAstronomy Cast that just might suit your taste:
How Old is the Universe?
The Big Bang and Cosmic Microwave Background

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Walking on the moon was one of mankind's greatest technological feats and NASA's biggest success story. We all know about the very first successful landing and the two astronauts who first set foot on the moon, Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong. But they were not the last astronauts to walk on the moon and go further than most humans have ever traveled. So, how many men have walked on the Moon?

Including the first two astronauts 12 men have walked on the moon. Looking at the development of the Apollo program it is not surprising. The entire Apollo program was a study in the gradual progression of technology until a successful moon landing and return. The first Apollo missions dealt with actually getting to the moon and coming back. Up until the Apollo 11 mission, no astronauts landed on the moon. They simply flew to it, did a flyby and returned. After the successful Apollo 11 mission of course the feat was repeated several times.

NASA launched 6 successful mission in all to the moon. The last was in 1972. There is very interesting information concerning these twelve astronauts. First off they are among only 24 people to actually see the far side of the moon. Second there were other famous astronauts other than Armstrong and Aldrin. Alan Shepard the commander of the Apollo 14 mission was the second man and first American in space. His mission was also the first to be broadcast in color television.

Apollo 17 was the last mission to the moon. The three astronauts on this mission were Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans and Harrison Schmitt. Their mission was also the first night launch occurring at midnight. Cernan and Schmitt became the very last astronauts to walk on the moon.

Another question that would probably be raised is if the lunar landings were so successful why didn't NASA or other nations plan more missions? The simple answer is lack of resources. The Apollo program at its peak cost 24 billion dollars. Even now the current NASA budget is only half of that amount. On top of that, the United States was going through a major recession in the latter half of the seventies so NASA had a curtailed budget and limited political will to launch any more missions. The Soviet Union was the only other government capable of a similar feat but they had already decided against the expenditure. The eventual collapse of the Soviet Union put a permanent end to any possibility of an attempt by a foreign government at the time.

If you enjoyed this article there are others on Universe Today that you will like. There is a great article on the Space Race. There is also a great article on Russian Cosmonauts.

There are also great resources on the web. The NASA website has extensive information on the Apollo program. The Smithsonian website also has a page with detailed information on each of the missions.

You can also check out Astronomy Cast. Episode 114, The Moon, Part 2 is about the history lunar exploration.

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Six hundred million people, or one fifth of mankind at the time, watched Neil Armstrong's first steps on the Moon in 1969. But seeing live transmissions from that historic event wouldn't have been possible – and the Apollo missions wouldn't have possible either – without reliable communications and accurate tracking capabilities. To support the Apollo Program, NASA built the Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN) with three 85 foot (26 meter) antennas equally spaced around the world at Goldstone, California, Honeysuckle Creek, Australia and Fresnedillas (near Madrid), Spain. Because of the movie "The Dish" however, most people think the Parkes Radio Antenna was the only dish used in Australia. But the Honeysuckle Creek dish was the real star of the Apollo missions. Most notably, it supplied voice and telemetry contact with the lunar and command modules but it also provided the first televised pictures of the Apollo 11 moonwalk. "It was a job well done by many people all over the world," said Bruce Ekert, a technician with the Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station. "When I reflect that we were part of history, it is still amazing that it came together and worked so smoothly."
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The Space Race was the defining events starting shortly after WWII that culminated with the first manned lunar landing. This technological and political struggle helped to shape the Cold War and created the infrastructure and agencies that now run modern space research and exploration.

It's important to realize that the push for Space Exploration could not have occurred without the devastation of the two World Wars. Many of the scientific advances of the early 21st century were some way or fashion tied to these two global events and the build up and development of weapons. The seeds of the modern rocket were found in the modification of Robert H. Goddard’s liquid fuel rocket by German rocket scientist. Led by Von Braun they developed the first ballistic missiles which were used to bombard London. After the end of the Second World War, the Allied nations scramble to acquire the technology and scientists of defeated Germany.

In a top secret operation called Paperclip, the United States lucked out in gaining a majority of Germany’s rocket scientist including Von Braun. These individuals would be the designers of the rockets that would be used by the US during the Space Race.

The single most important event at the beginning of this era of innovation was the launching of Sputnik by the Russians. It was the first artificial satellite ever launched and it set into motion the start of the space race. By this time the two remaining global superpowers Russia and the United States had already entered a period of espionage and proxy wars called the Cold War. The blow to US moral was critical as the general public feared that Sputnik signaled major leaps in technology for Russia which could lead to its victory over the United States.

This was crucial as space exploration in the United States was considered a waste of money that could either be diverted to social programs or military projects. The fear caused by Sputnik forced American politicians to act, starting the race to “beat” the Russian in space exploration. Until the end of the sixties Russia maintained its dominance sending the first living creatures and eventual man and woman into space. The game changing moment occurred under the leadership of President John F. Kennedy and his successor Lyndon B. Johnson. Both men were able to sway public opinion and marshal resources to attain the goal and sending men safely to the Moon and back. This eventually occurred in July 1969 with Apollo 11 mission and signaled the eventual end of the space race.

If you liked this article there are several others you might enjoy on Universe Today. There is an article that is about Explorer 1 one of the earliest satellites. There is also an article that is a Q&A piece with one of the Apollo 11 astronauts.

There are also great resources on the net. Newseum.org has a great time line of the space race. There is also a great article about sputnik on nasa.gov.

You can also listen to Astronomy Cast. Episode 114 The Moon Part 2 Exploration is about the lunar landing.

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Even though scientists have been able to study Moon rocks up close for almost 40 years, there are still many answers to be gleaned from the lunar samples collected by the Apollo astronauts. "We know even more now and can ask smarter questions as we research these samples," says Randy Korotev from Washington University in St. Louis. "There are still some answers, we believe, in the Apollo 11 mission." One possible clue the Moon rocks could provide is a better understanding of Earth's history and when life actually began on our planet.
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50 lbs. of moon rocks. That's how much weight was allocated for the Apollo 11 astronauts to bring back lunar samples to Earth. But this would be the first time materials from another world would be brought to our planet. What should be done with these alien rocks, and could they possibly be a threat to life as we know it?

What started out as a seemingly straightforward idea of building a facility to store and study rocks from the Moon ended up becoming a power struggle between engineers building the facility and scientists who wanted to study the rocks and those who wanted to save the world from biological disaster — not to mention even more squabbling between the various governmental agencies and politicians. In the middle of it all was James McLane, Jr. one of the engineers tasked with the early planning for the Manned Spaceflight Center –now known as Johnson Space Center in Houston — and in particular, he led a group to determine the requirements and design concept of NASA's Lunar Receiving Laboratory.
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The Apollo 11 40th anniversary is coming at us fast and furious! With restored images and video, mission audio, interviews, and special features, who can keep track of it all? Well, we're going to try. We'll post here all the links we can find that has anything to do with the anniversary. If you find something of interest elsewhere you think we should add, email it to Nancy or post it in the comments, and we'll add it. This will be Apollo 11 anniversary HQ!
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