Category: What’s Up

M2: Doug Williams – REU Program – NOAO/AURA/NSF
Monday, November 21 – Tonight let’s start with a wonderful globular cluster that gives the very best of all worlds – one that can be seen in even the smallest of binoculars and from both hemispheres! Your destination is about one-third the distance between Beta Aquarii and Epsilon Pegasi…

First recorded by Maraldi in 1746 and cataloged by Messier in 1760, the 6.0 magnitude M2 is one of the finest and brightest of Class II globular clusters. At 13 billion years old, this rich galactic globular is one of the oldest in our galaxy and its position in the halo puts it directly beneath the Milky Way’s southern pole. In excess of 100,000 faint stars form a well concentrated sphere which spans across 150 light-years – one that shows easily to any optical aid. While only larger scopes will begin resolution on this awesome cluster’s yellow and red giants, we’d do well to remember that our own Sun would be around the 21st magnitude if it were as distant as this ball of stars!

Tuesday, November 22 – With the Moon comfortably out of the way this evening, let’s head for the constellation of Cetus and a dual study as we conquer NGC 246 and NGC 255.

Located about four finger widths north of bright Beta Ceti – and triangulating south with Phi 1, 2 and 3 – is our first mark. NGC 246 is an 8.0 magnitude planetary nebula which will appear as a slightly out-of-focus star in binoculars, but a whole lot like a Messier object to a small scope. Here is the southern sky’s version of the “Ring Nebula.” While this one is actually a bit brighter than its M57 counterpart, larger scopes might find its 12.0 magnitude central star just a little bit easier to resolve.

If you are using large aperture, head just a breath northwest and see if you can capture small and faint galaxy NGC 255. This 12.8 magnitude spiral will show a very round signature with a gradual brightening towards the nucleus and a hint of outer spiral arms.

Wednesday, November 23 – Tonight in 1885, the very first photograph of a meteor shower was taken. Also, weather satellite Tiros II was launched on this day in 1960. Carried to orbit by a three-stage Delta rocket, the “Television Infrared Observation Satellite” was about the size of a barrel, testing experimental television techniques and infrared equipment. Operating for 376 days, Tiros II sent back thousands of pictures of Earth’s cloud cover and was successful in its experiments to control orientation of satellite spin and infrared sensors. Oddly enough, on this day in 1977 a similar mission – Meteosat 1- became the first satellite put into orbit by the European Space Agency. Where is all this leading? Why not try observing satellites on your own! Thanks to wonderful on-line tools like Heavens-Above, you’ll be “in the know” whenever a bright satellite makes a pass for your specific area. It’s fun!

Thursday, November 24 – Tonight let’s return to Cassiopeia and start first by exploring the central most bright star – Gamma. At approximately 100 light-years away, Gamma is very unusual. Once thought to be a variable, this particular star has been known to go through some very radical changes in its temperature, spectrum, magnitude, color and even diameter! Gamma is also a visual double star, but the 11th magnitude companion is highly difficult to perceive so close (2.3″) to the primary.

Four degrees southeast of Gamma is our marker for this starhop, Phi Cassiopeiae. By aiming binoculars or telescopes at this star, it is very easy to locate an interesting open cluster – NGC 457 – in the same field of view. This bright and splendid galactic cluster has received a variety of names over the years because of its uncanny resemblance to a figure.

Both Phi and HD 7902 may not be true members of the cluster. If magnitude 5 Phi were actually part of this grouping, it would have to have a distance of approximately 9300 light-years, making it the most luminous star in the sky! The fainter members of NGC 457 comprise a relatively “young” star cluster that spans about 30 light-years across. Most of the stars are only about 10 million years old, yet there is an 8.6 magnitude red supergiant in the center.

Friday, November 25 – If you live in the northeastern United States or Canada, it would be worth getting up early this morning as the Moon occults bright Sigma Leonis. Be sure to check IOTA for times and locations near you!

Tonight we’re heading south and our goal will be about two finger widths north-northwest of Alpha Phoenicis.

At magnitude 7.8, this huge member of the Sculptor Galaxy Group, known as NGC 55, will be a treat to both binoculars and telescopes. Somewhat similar to the large Magellanic Cloud in structure, those in the southern hemisphere will have an opportunity to see a galaxy very similar in appearance to M82 – but on a much grander scale! Larger scopes will show mottling in structure, resolution of individual stars and nebulous areas, as well as a very prominent central dark dust cloud. Like its northern counterpart, both the Ursa Major and Sculptor Group are around the same distance from our own Local Group.

Saturday, November 26 – This morning it is our Russian comrades’ turn as the Moon occults Beta Virginis. As always, times and locations can be found on the IOTA website! Today also marks the launch of the first French satellite – Asterix 1.

It’s time to head north again as we turn our eyes towards 1000 light-year distant Delta Cephei, one of the most famous of all variables. It is an example of a “pulsing variable” – one whose magnitude changes are not attributed to an eclipsing companion, but to the expansion and contraction of the star itself. For unaided observers, discover what John Goodricke did in 1784… You can follow its near one magnitude variability by comparing it to nearby Epsilon and Zeta. It rises to maximum in about a day and a half, yet the fall takes about four days.

Let’s travel about a finger width southeast of Delta Cephei for new open cluster NGC 7380. This large gathering of stars has a combined magnitude of 7.2. Like many young clusters, it is embroiled in faint nebulosity. Surrounded by a dispersed group of brighter stars, the cluster itself can be seen in binoculars and may resolve around three dozen faint members to mid-aperture.

Before you leave, return to Delta Cephei and take a closer look. It is also a well-known double star that was measured by F.G.W. Struve in 1835. Its 6.3 magnitude companion has not shown change in position or separation angle in the 171 years since Struve looked at it – and as we see it now. Chances are, this means the two are probably not a physical pair. S.W. Burnham discovered a third, 13th magnitude companion in 1878. Enjoy the color contrast between its members!

Sunday, November 27 – Tonight let’s use binoculars or small scopes to go northern and southern “cluster hunting.”

The first destination is NGC 7654, but you’ll find it more easily by its common name of M52. To find it with binoculars, draw a mental line between Alpha and Beta Cassiopeiae and extend it about the same distance along the same trajectory. This mixed magnitude cluster is bright and easy.

The next, NGC 129, is located almost directly between Gamma and Beta. This is also a large, bright cluster that resolves in a small scope but shows at least a dozen of its 35 members to binoculars. Near the cluster’s center and north of a pair of matched magnitude stars is Cepheid variable DI Cassiopeiae – which changes by about a magnitude in a period of a week.

Now head for northeastern Epsilon Cassiopeiae and hop about three finger widths to the east-southeast. Here you will find 3300 light-year distant NGC 1027. As an attractive “starry swatch” in binoculars, small scopes will have a wonderful time resolving its 40 or more faint members.
If you live south, have a look at open cluster IC 2602. This very bright, mixed magnitude cluster includes 3.0 magnitude Theta Carinae. Seen easily unaided, this awesome open cluster contains around 30 stars. Be sure to look on its southwest edge with binoculars or scopes for a smaller feature overshadowed by the grander companions. Tiny by comparison, Melotte 101 will appear like a misty patch of faint stars. Enjoy!

Until next week… May all your journeys be at light speed! ~Tammy Plotner

NGC 204. Image credit: Todd Boronson NOAO/AURA/NSF. Click to enlarge.
Monday, October 24 – With the Moon well out of the way, the return of dark skies favours having a look at an incredible southern galaxy in Sculptor – NGC 253.

Located about one third the way between Alpha Sculptor and Beta Ceti, NGC 253 was discovered by Caroline Herschel in 1783 during a comet search. As the brightest member of the “Sculptor Group”, this large and beautiful galaxy is also one of the closest outside our “Local Group” and will be readily apparent in binoculars for southern observers. Mid-to-large telescopes will be delighted with its many bright knots and dark obscured areas. For more northern observers, wait until the constellation is at its highest to catch a glimpse of this awesome 7th magnitude southern study.

Today in 1851, another astronomer was busy at the eyepiece as William Lassell discovered Uranus’ moons Ariel and Umbriel. Although this is far beyond backyard equipment, we can have a look at the blue/green planet. Now around magnitude 5.5, Uranus can be spotted in even small binoculars, but it will be harder to find it than it will be to see it! Start in Aquarius northeast of Sigma while waiting on Sculptor to rise…

Tuesday, October 25 – And who was watching the planets in 1671? None other than Giovanni Cassini – because he’d just discovered Saturn’s moon Iapetus. Before dawn this morning, look for Saturn about half a fist-width below below the Moon. You just might catch Iapetus very close to the rings.

If you feel like another planet challenge, then head towards open western horizons because Mercury is also making a dim appearance. About a half hour after sunset, go out and start with Venus. Using binoculars, identify Antares less than a handspan lower to the west. Scan directly below Antares for this elusive planet so near the horizon.

Today is the birthday of Henry Norris Russell. Born in 1877, Russell was the American leader in establishing the modern field of astrophysics. As he namesake for the American Astronomical Society’s highest award (for a lifetime contribution to the field), Mr. Russell is the “R” in HR diagrams, along with Mr. Hertzsprung. This work was first used in a 1914 paper, published by Russell.

What is an H-R diagram? Like people – stars grow up and age. But unlike humans, they are all very different in terms of size and weight at their beginnings. Massive stars live short lives and put out a lot of light. Low mass stars are very dim but continue to glow for billions of years. Our Sun is low mass star, but in the end it will do what most stars do – swell up to enormous size. It will turn red, expend its fuel, then expire. What’s left will be a very small white dwarf – glowing mostly by stored up heat. H-R diagrams pull all these factors together – young stars, old stars, bright stars, and dim stars.

Let’s look at Antares. It’s a relatively old, massive star – very bright and destined to end brilliantly. Or Markab – an aging blue dwarf soon to become a red giant. Now look at Deneb. It’s a supermassive blue giant shining as brightly as some globular clusters – yet fated to create another supernova remnant in Cygnus within 100 thousand years… Take a look at Enif – a spectral class K orange supergiant radiating with as much light as 7000 suns – yet it burns fast and is cooler than Sol. How about Polaris? Hotter than Sol, it’s another star about to enter a glorious retirement. Thankfully, our Sun is right in the middle of the wonderful H-R diagram!

Wednesday, October 26 – Tomorrow Neptune ends its retrograde, or westward, journey across the sky and will slowly begin to travel east. At 8th magnitude, it’s within binocular range and can be found west of Theta Capricornii.

Tonight let’s go hunting for the “Blue Snowball”. It’s proper name is the NGC 7622 and you find it around five degrees due east of Omicron Andromedae. At magnitude 9, this one challenges binocular users and presents the same problems as locating the M57 – low power will show you something – but not what it is. In a telescope, the “Blue Snowball” is almost as large as the “Ring” nebula.

Thursday, October 27 – This morning, look for the crescent Moon as it visits in Leo and makes a grand appearance with Regulus.

For those of you with larger telescopes who are looking for a real challenge, try your hand at roughly 10th magnitude comet C/2005 E2 McNaught. Now cruising just southwest of star 62 Sagittarius, look for what appears to be a faded and unresolved globular cluster.

Something a bit brighter? Then try your hand at asteroid 89 Julia. At magnitude 9.4, you’ll find it around 600 light seconds away just north of Beta Andromedae. You’ll find excellent locator charts at Heaven’s Above.

Friday, October 28 – Today in 1971, Great Britain launched its first satellite. For our friends in Russian, you will have a chance to see the Moon occult Sigma Leonis on this universal date. Please check with IOTA for more details.

Within the next 24 hours, Mars and Earth come will come the closest for this year. At some 43 million miles away, it doesn’t appear much like the size of the Full Moon, does it? Every two years we pass each other in our orbit around the Sun, and although we aren’t as close as we were in 2003, it will be another 13 years before we’re this near again.

Don’t leave your telescope inside. Don’t worry if you only use binoculars or just your eyes. Mars is simply superb right now and you cannot miss it’s ruddy color. For many of you, one of the largest and most easily spotted features, Syrtis Major, will now be in plain view. Appearing much light a deep, dark triangle, look closely for the lighter oval of Hellas Basin towards the pole. Still, others may see Mare Cimmerium, looking much like an antler – or Mare Erythraerum whose “fingers” reach toward Chryse. No matter where you are, wait until Mars is well risen for the very best views and enjoy!

Saturday, October 29 – On this night in 1749, French astronomer Le Gentil was at the eyepiece of an 18′ focal length telescope. His object of choice was the Andromeda Galaxy, which he believed to be a nebula. Little did he know at the time, his descriptive notes also included the M32, a satellite galaxy of the M31. It was the first small galaxy discovered and it would be another 175 years before they were recognized by Edwin Hubble as such.

Perhaps where you live, tonight will also be celebrated as “trick or treat”. If so, why not give your tricksters a real treat and view the Andromeda Galaxy? Be sure to take the time to look for both the M32 and M110 – both are fine galaxies in their own right. If skies are too light, put bright Alberio in the eyepiece!

Sunday, October 30 – Tonight let’s head toward an early evening study as we take a look at the departing M57. Located almost centrally between Beta and Gamma Lyrae, the “Ring” will appear as an out-of-focus “star” in the populated field for binoculars and resolve into its namesake for even the smallest of telescopes. This round shell of gas surrounding an expiring star will make a excellent conversation piece for any “Halloween” party.

Before you leave, take another look at Mars. Still a week away from opposition, right now is the best time to let it rise high to catch a stable look at the surface features.

I would also like to thank Jeff Barbour for his input this week. We’re all just a little bit closer… Under the stars! Until next week? May all your journeys be at light speed… ~Tammy Plotner

Mars. Image credit: NASA/JPL
Monday, October 17 – Did readers on the West Coast get a chance to see the partial lunar eclipse this morning? Excellent, because the Full Hunter’s Moon will make “hunting” most deep sky objects next to impossible tonight. But who cares when you can see Mars in such great detail!

Is it really that good and really that worth the wait for it to rise? The answer is yes. Even through a small telescope it is very easy to see the dark markings and the brilliant polar cap. Although Mars won’t rise for good viewing until late evening, don’t wait any longer to start your observations. In larger telescopes at higher powers, you will see Mars as you have never seen it before. Even if you do not use a telescope, you cannot miss this huge, bright, reddish planetary disc rising in the east.

Want a map? Care to sketch? Or would you just like more details? Then you’ll find no site more comprehensive than the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers. This ALPO page contains everything you’ll need to tun this year’s “Mars Experience” into the best you’ve ever had!

Tuesday, October 18 – Today in 1959, Soviet Luna 3 began returning the first photographs of the Moon’s far side. Also today – but in 1967 – the Soviets again made history as Venera 4 became the first spacecraft to probe Venus’ atmosphere. Unlike Mars, Venus shows little details but it’s still a fine way to start the evening. Look for its bright, phasic disc just west of Sagittarius after sunset.

If you’d really like to see some details, try looking at the lunar surface tonight and focus your attention towards the stretched oval of crater Gauss located about midway on the northern quadrant of the eastern limb. With the terminator so near, can you see four southern interior craters? Move further south and central on the limb. Mare Smythii might be gone, but look at small, overlapping craters Jenkins and Nobili.

Wednesday, October 19 – For viewers in Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece, you have a very rare and exciting event this morning! Asteroid Rhodope will eclipse bright star – Regulus. While this event requires no special equipment, your observances could make a significant contribution to the folks at the International Occultation and Timing Association (IOTA). Please take the time to visit this page for details on how you can help scientific studies. An event like this won’t happen again until 2014… Please watch. Wishing you clear skies!

For viewers in the United States and Canada, tonight is a definitely celestial gathering as the Moon, Mars and the Pleiades will make a wonderfully tight trio as the come up in the east, and this would be a great night to explore!

While we’re waiting on them to rise, let’s have a look in Cassiopeia at two of its primary stars.
Looking much like a flattened “W” the southern-most bright star is Alpha. Also known as Schedar, this magnitude 2.2 spectral type K star, was once suspected of being a variable, but no changes have been detected in modern astronomy. Binoculars will reveal its orange/yellow coloring, but a telescope is needed to bring out its unique features. In 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered a 9th magnitude companion star and our modern optics easily separate the blue/white component’s distance of 63″. A second, even fainter companion at 38″ is mentioned in the list of double stars and even a third at 14th magnitude was spotted by S.W. Burnham in 1889. All three stars are optical companions only, but make 150 to 200 light year distant Schedar a delight to view.

Just north of Alpha is the next destination for tonight – Eta Cassiopeiae. Discovered by Sir William Herschel in August of 1779, Eta is quite possibly one of the most well-known of binary stars. The 3.5 magnitude primary star is a spectral type G, meaning it has a yellowish color much like our own Sun. It is about 10% larger than Sol and about 25% brighter. The 7.5 magnitude secondary (or B star) is very definitely a K-type, metal poor, and distinctively red. In comparison, it is half the mass of our Sun, crammed into about a quarter of its volume and around 25 times dimmer. In the eyepiece, the B star will angle off to the northwest, providing a wonderful and colorful look at one of the season’s finest.

Thursday, October 20 – Tonight is one of the busiest night skies of the year. We are now slipping into the stream of Comet Halley and into one of the finest meteor showers around, but the Moon is going to play a very major role through tonight and tomorrow morning.

For viewers in the southern part of Europe and the northern portion of Africa, you will have the chance to watch the Moon occult 27 Taurii tonight. Be sure to visit this IOTA webpage for charts and times in your location.

If you should happen to live a little more centrally in Africa, or in South America, it just gets better as the Moon will coast through the Pleiades star cluster on this date for you. Thanks to the good folks at IOTA, you can use this reference material for more specific details. Clear skies!

Friday, October 21 – Be sure to be outdoors before dawn to enjoy one of the year’s most reliable meteor showers. The offspring of Comet Halley will grace the early morning hours as they return once again as the Orionid meteor shower. This dependable shower produces an average of 10-20 meteors per hour at maximum and the best activity begins before local midnight on the 20th, and reaches its best as Orion stands high to the south at about two hours before local dawn on the 21st.

Although Comet Halley has long since departed our Solar System, the debris left from its trail still remain scattered in Earth’s orbital pattern around the Sun allowing us to predict when this meteor shower will occur. We first enter the “stream” at the beginning of October and do not leave it until the beginning of November, making your chances of “catching a falling star” even greater. These meteors are very fast, and although they are faint, it is still possible to see an occasional “fireball” that leaves a persistent trail.

Clouded out or the Moon too bright? Don’t worry. You don’t always need your eyes or perfect skies to meteor watch. By tuning an FM radio to the lowest frequency possible that does not receive a “clear signal”, you can practice radio meteor listening. An outdoor FM antenna pointed at the zenith and connected to your receiver will increase your chances, but it’s not necessary. Simply turn up the static and listen. Those hums, whistles, beeps, bongs, and occasional snatches of signals are our own radio signals being reflected off the meteor’s ion trail!

For viewers over most of Australia, be sure to keep an eye on the sky tonight as the Moon will occult bright Beta Taurii for most locales on this universal date. Be sure to check IOTA for more specific details.

Saturday, October 22 – Something very special happened today in 2136 B.C. There was a solar eclipse and for the very first time it was seen and recorded by Chinese astronomers. And probably a very good thing because royal astronomers were executed for failure to predict!

Today is also the birthday of Karl Jansky. Born in 1905, Jansky was an American physicist as well as an electrical engineer. One of his pioneer discoveries were non-Earth based radio waves at 20.5 MHz while investigating noise sources between 1931 and 1932. And, in 1975, Soviet Venera 9 was busy sending Earth the very first look and Venus’ surface.

Thanks to just a slightly later rise of the Moon, let’s return again to Cassiopeia and start first by exploring the central most bright star, Gamma. At approximately 100 light years away, Gamma is a very unusual star. Once thought to be a variable, this particular star has been known to go through some very radical changes with its temperature, spectrum, magnitude, color and even diameter. Gamma is also a visual double star, but the 11 magnitude companion is highly difficult to perceive so close (2.3″) from the primary.

Four degrees southeast of Gamma is our marker for this starhop, Phi Cassiopeiae. By aiming binoculars or telescopes at this star, it is very easy to locate an interesting open cluster, NGC 457, because they will be in the same field of view. This bright and splendid galactic cluster has received a variety of names over the years because of its uncanny resemblance to a figure. Some call it an “Angel”, others see it as the “Zuni Thunderbird”, I’ve heard it called the “Owl” and the “Dragonfly”, but perhaps my most favourite is the “E.T. Cluster”, As you view it, you can see why. Bright Phi and HD 7902 appear like “eyes” in the dark and the dozens of stars that make up the “body” appear like outstretched “arms” or “wings”. (For E.T. fans? Check out the red “heart” in the center.)

All this is very fanciful, but what is the NGC 457, really? Both Phi and HD 7902 may not be true members of the cluster. If magnitude 5 Phi were actually part of this grouping, it would have to have a distance of approximately 9300 light years, making it the most luminous star in the sky, far outshining even Rigel! To get a rough of idea of what that means, if we were to view our own Sun from this far away, it would be no more than magnitude 17.5. The fainter members of the NGC457 comprise a relatively “young” star cluster that spans about 30 light years across. Most of the stars are only about 10 million years old, yet there is 8.6 magnitude red supergiant in the center.

Sunday, October 23 – With tonight’s early dark skies, let’s take out binoculars and have a look at an old favourite – “The Double Cluster” – NGC869 and NGC884. This pair of rich galactic open clusters rising in the northeast are an unaided-eye object from a dark site, easily seen in the smallest of binoculars from urban locations and beyond compare when viewed with a telescope at lowest power.

The western-most of the pair is NGC869, also known as “h Perseii”. It contains at least 750 stars clustered in a brilliant mass spanning about 70 light years, and approximately 7,500 light years away from us. It’s eastern companion is NGC884, or “Chi Perseii”. The statistics are almost a match, but NGC884 only has about half as many stars – some being “super giants” over 50,000 times brighter than our own Sun. These twin clusters have only one major difference: NGC884 is approximately 10 million years old and the NGC869 is perhaps 5 million. The existance of these splendid clusters was cataloged as far back as 350 B.C. with both Ptolemy and Hipparchus noting their appearance – yet Messier never “discovered” them!

This issue celebrates a full year of appearing on “The Universe Today”. I thank all of you who have taken the time to write and I would love to hear your suggestions for next year. Thank you for reading! Until next week? Ask for the Moon, but keep reaching for the stars! May all your journeys be at light speed…. ~Tammy Plotner

Voyager photo of Neptune. Image credit: NASA/JPL. Click to enlarge.
Monday, October 10 – Today in 1846, William Lassell was busy at his scope as he made a new discovery – Neptune’s moon Triton! Although our everyday equipment can’t “see” Triton, we can still have a look at Neptune in central Capricornus. At near magnitude 8, Neptune will appear as no more than a near stellar-sized, slightly blue-tinged disc. You’ll find it just slightly less than a fingerwidth to the northeast of Theta Capricornii. While you might think finding Neptune is a bit disappointing visually, consider this… We’re able to see it 4.3 billion kilometers away! Not bad considering we’re on a planet that would fit inside its dark oval.

Tonight on the lunar surface, let’s return again to a favourite old feature. In the lunar north, you cannot help but see the long, deep scar of the Alpine Valley slashing its way across the lunar Alps. Power up and see if you can spot tiny crater Trouvelot on its eastern edge. Now let’s head north across Mare Frigoris for more! Perhaps you’ll spy Rimae Archytas near the terminator along the mare’s southern shore. As you head north across the smooth sands, look for the larger punctuations of Protogoras and Archytas on the northern shore. If you continue north, the ruined crater W. Bond will meet your eye, with its small eastern crater and crater Timaeus with its central peak caught on W. Bond’s southern wall.

Tuesday, October 11 – Tonight the lunar terminator will have moved to reveal another old familiar crater to the north – Plato. Let us use it as our guidepost and see what we can find!

To the casual eye, the interior of Plato would appear to be smooth, but if conditions are steady? Power up to the max. Inside you will find as many as five small craterlets. Along its outside western wall, look for a deep impact crater – A. Carefully note there is a long depression, perhaps caused by a glancing meteor strike, that angles off to the northwest from its northern wall crest that ends in a small crater! To the northeast, you might find a thin rimae, like a crack, that traces its way towards the beginning of the Montes Alpes. Head north again across Mare Frigoris and you will see the remains of crater Birmingham and Epigenes between it and last night’s W. Bond. Look further north for the shallow Goldschmidt with the younger Anaxagoras intruding upon its west wall. And, of all the craters to the very north? What better name to give one than Byrd – for the American polar explorer!

Wednesday, October 12 – Today in 1892, astronomy great E. E. Barnard was hard at work. Using photography, he became the first to discover a comet -1892 V – in this way.

With lunacy, our best shot is a morning comet that you’d almost need a camera for – C/2003 K4 LINEAR scooting across Eridanus. While this is not an easy comet – large telescopes only – at roughly magnitude 12.5, we’d like to thank SkyHound for this excellent chart. Good luck!

Tonight on the Moon, let’s take an in-depth look at one of the most impressive of the southern lunar features – Clavius.

Although you cannot help but be drawn visually to this crater, let’s start at the southern limb near the terminator and work our way up. Your first sighting will be the large and shallow dual rings of Castatus with its central crater and Klaproth adjoning it. Further north is Blancanus with its series of very small interior craters, but wait until you see Clavius. Caught on the southeast wall is Rutherford with its central peak and crater Porter on the northeast wall. Look between them for the deep depression labeled D. West of D you will also see three outstanding impacts C, N and J, while CB resides between D and Porter. The southern and southwest wall are also home to many impacts and look carefully at the floor for many, many more! It has been often known as a test of a telescope’s resolving power to see just how many more craters you can find inside tremendous old Clavius. Power up and enjoy!

Thursday, October 13 – Today marks the founding of the British Interplanetary Society in 1933. “From imagination to reality”, the BIS is the world’s longest established organization devoted solely to supporting and promoting the exploration of space and astronautics.

Tonight we’ll do them proud as we have a look at newly revealed crater, Longomontanus.

Northwest of last night’s study – Clavius – Longmontanus is also a crater with many wonderful details. As you power up to observe, note that it has obliterated a much older crater whose remains can be seen just outside its east wall. Inside Longomontanus, you’ll see a very small collection of central peaks and a terrific series of smaller impacts on its northwest wall. Now let’s concentrate outside Longomontanus’ north wall as we identify the remains of Montanari with an impact on the ruins of its west wall. Due east is the double strike of crater Brown. As we continue north, we see crater Wilhelm with its multiple strikes between its south wall and Montanari’s north. Look for a series of four small impacts which separate it and Heinsus to the north.

Friday, October 14 – Tonight the Moon’s peaceful crater Gassendi will call, but we’re about to set sail on the “Ocean of Storms” as we visit the southern section of Oceanus Procellarum.

Let’s leave from the port of Gassendi and head north to small crater Gassendi B. As you move out onto the grey sands, look for a serene wave which follows the southwestern shoreline. Its name is Dorsa Ewing and you will see it trail south into the pockmark of Herigonius almost due east of Gassendi B. To its east you will see two additional craters, and the northernmost is Norman. Return again to Dorsa Ewing and trace it north where it leads into some low hills and the tiny crater Scheele and far more prominent Wichmann further north. If you look closely a Wichmann you will see it is a small impact on what looks to be the remains of a long flooded, and terribly eroded crater. Ride the waves in the “Ocean of Storms” and see to what ports it takes you!

Saturday, October 15 – Today in 1963 marks the first detection of an interstellar molecule. This discovery was made by a group headed by Sander Weinreb using the MIT Millstone Hill 84-foot dish. Using new correllation receiver technology, hydroxyl molecules were found as absorption bands using the supernova remnant Cas A as a background continuum source. By the dawn of the new millenia, nearly 200 different interstellar molecules had been identified and many of these are considered organic in nature.

Tonight let’s see what might be up there in the region of Cas A using visible light shall we? The nearest bright star to Cas A is magnitude 2.4 Caph (Beta Cas) – the brightest and most westward of the stars making up the Cassiopeia “W”. To locate the region of Cas A, sweep about 6 degrees due west of Caph and follow the subtle curve of three 5th magnitude stars. Cas A lies less than one degree south-southwest of the second star in the sequence of three. That star is a complex 4.9 magnitude multiple star system associated with variable star AR Cas.

Through binoculars two stars of this system are easily resolved – the 4.9 magnitude primary led across the sky by a 7.1 magnitude secondary. The 76 arc second distant secondary (component C) is actually a very tight double itself having a 1.4 arc second separated 8.9 magnitude partner which should be resolvable in fine 4 inch instruments. The very finest, large-apertured amateur scopes may also be able to distinguish a 9.3 magnitude 0.9 second B-component from the 4.9 magnitude primary. Smaller scopes are back in the running again when attempting three 11th magnitude stars – none of which are closer than 42 arc seconds to the primary. Intermediate apertured scopes can also hope to pick out a 12.9 magnitude H component 27 arc seconds northwest of the 7.1 magnitude C component. 8.9 magnitude F also has a 9.1 magnitude near twin 11 arc seconds east-northeast. If you can see them all you should probably wrap an observatory building around your telescope – if one isn’t there already!

If you like to follow brightness changes in variables – AR Cas is not a good choice. This eclipsing type variable only fluctuates by a tenth of a magnitude over a period 6 earth days!

When we are finished, let us go from one extreme to another as we begin on the northernmost limb of the lunar surface. From the northernmost portion of Sinus Roris, look for the lens-shaped crater Markov. To the northeast you will spy a large, flat looking crater with very little distinguishing characteristics whose name is Oenpides. If conditions are very stable, you might stand a chance at a grey slash on the very lunar edge further north known as Cleostratus. On the southern end we see familiar craters Wargentin, Nasmyth and Phoclides, but go to the very southern limb – the long oval is named Pingre.

Sunday, October 16 – Tonight after the Sun sets, let’s take a look at where Venus is now! Using binoculars, you’re in for a real treat as you will notice that Antares is also in the same field of view. Now look again unaided. This bright pair are only separated by about 1.5 degrees. Watch again tomorrow night as they move further apart.

Tonight the great Grimaldi will capture the eye, but head southeast for another featureless dark grey oval, Crueger. The next crater south is hard to see, because it really doesn’t appear like a crater. Its name is Darwin, and it is “evolved” to the point where it is best caught by focusing on its rimae which includes its east wall. Look for a Y formation pointing towards Crueger.

Before you think I’m finished with you, I’m going to ask western American observers to get up early. Why? Because there will be a partial lunar eclipse tomorrow morning! The Earth’s shadow will just nick the edge of the Moon and only around 7% will go dark. While this is just a minor event, I’d get up early to watch and perhaps you will, too! You’ll find much more information on this event here on NASA’s pages. Wishing you clear skies!

Until next week? Ask for the Moon, but keep reaching for the stars! May all your journeys be at light speed…. ~Tammy Plotner

The Helix Nebula. Image credit: NOAO/AURA/NSF. Click to enlarge.
Monday, October 3 – Today marks a terrific event as viewers in Africa had a chance to witness an annular solar eclipse. Many parts of both Europe and Asia were also treated to a partial eclipse as well, so be sure the check the pages of Mr. Eclipse for links to times, locations, images, etc.

For those of us who didn’t get to see the solar ring, let’s look for a ring of another type. Tonight’s dark sky object is a difficult one for northern observers and is truly a challenge. Around a handspan south of Zeta Aquarii and just a bit west of finderscope star Upsilon is a remarkably large area of nebulosity that is very well suited to large binoculars, rich field telescopes and wide field eyepieces. Are you ready to walk into the “Helix”?

Known as NGC 7293, this faint planetary nebula “ring” structure is around half the size of the full Moon. While its total magnitude of 6.5 and large size should denote an easy find, the “Helix” is anything but easy because of its low surface brightness nature. Binoculars will show it as a large, round, hazy spot while small telescopes with good seeing conditions will have a chance to outshine larger ones by using lower power eyepieces to pick up this braided ring structure.

As one of the very closest of planetary nebula, the NGC 7392 is very similar in structure to the famous “Ring” – M57. It is a spherical shell of gas lighted by an extremely hot, tiny central star that’s only around 2% of our own Sun’s diameter – yet exceeds a surface temperature of over 100,000 kelvin. Can you resolve it? Best of luck!

Tuesday, October 4 – Today in 1957, the USSR made history as Sputnik 1 became the first manmade object to orbit the earth.

Orbiting a bit further out is the new comet in town – C/2005 E2 (McNaught). Located in the southeastern portion of southern Saggitarius, E2 is around five degrees east of Alpha Corona Australis and just a breath south. Now holding a magnitude of an estimated 12, our new friend will be climbing northwards rather quickly in the weeks ahead and will begin to brighten as it curves its way northeastward toward the M55 at month’s end. How soon can you spot it?

Wednesday, October 5 – Today marks the birthdate of Robert Goddard. Born 1882, Goddard is known as the father of modern rocketry – and with good reason.

In 1907, Goddard came into the public eye as a cloud of smoke erupted from the basement of the physics building in Worcester Polytechnic Institute where he had just fired a powder rocket. By 1914, he had patented the use of liquid rocket fuel and two or three stage solid fuel rockets. His work continued as he sought methods of putting equipment ever higher and by 1920 had envisioned his rockets reaching the Moon. Among his many achievements, he proved that a rocket would work in a vacuum and by 1926 had the first scientific equipment along for the ride. By 1932, Goddard was guiding those flights and by 1937 had the motors pivoting on gimbals and controlled gyroscopically. His lifetime of work went pretty much unnoticed until the dawn of the “Space Age”, but in 1959 (14 years after his death) he received his acclaim at last as NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center was established in his memory.

Tonight, challenge yourself visually to see if you can find the very slender crescent of the Moon. This will be quite difficult for more northern observers, but you’ll find it about half a fist width below Venus.

Also today in 1923, Edwin Hubble was busy discovering the first Cepheid variable in M31, the Andromeda Galaxy. Although this might not seem like much, at the time it proved that “spiral nebulae” were indeed independant galaxies that greatly resembled our own. With the Moon not harming tonight’s skies, take the time to truly study the Andromeda Galaxy – not just look at it. With patience you will find that it stretches across several fields of view in even modest telescopes and contains a wealth of details.

Thursday, October 6 – Tonight SkyWatchers are urged to look west after sunset as the tender crescent Moon nears the sparkling Venus. Do you see “Earthshine?”

If you chose to look at the lunar surface, you will see the emerging Mare Crisium area and the line of prominent craters which stretch to the north – Cleomides, Burckhardt, Geminus and Messala. Just south of central begins the smooth, grey seas of Mare Fecunditatis with the lovely old Langrenus caught on its eastern edge. Look further south for Petavius.

Friday, October 7 – Today is the birthdate of Niels Bohr. Born in 1855, Danish-born Bohr became the pioneer atomic physicist.

Tonight is the peak of the Piscids meteor shower, so keep watch on the radiant area near Aries. The fall rate is around 15 per hour and they’ll streak through at 28 kilometers per second.

Tonight on the lunar surface, be sure to catch this opportunity to study details around crater Proclus on Mare Crisium’s western shore. This amazing little crater is home to many lunar transient phenomena and will develop a bright ray system in the days ahead.

Right now we are only one month away from opposition with Mars and gaining on the “God of War” at a speed of 20,000 miles every day. By the time you have finished with lunar observations, you’ll see it blazing its way up around 90 minutes after sunset and arriving on the scene around 5 minutes earlier each night and gaining in brightness. This author highly encourages you to wait until Mars has cleared most atmospheric disruption and observe. The details that can be seen on the Red Planet’s surface are stunning! Even the smallest of aperture can resolve out dark markings and one polar cap, but for those of you with larger scopes? I promise you that you cannot look away. It is that incredibly detailed.

Saturday, October 8 – Today marks the birthday of Ejnar Hertzsprung. Born 1873, Hertzsprung was a Danish astronomer who first proved the existence of giant and dwarf stars in the early 1900s. His work included the relationship between color and luminosity, but wasn’t truly recognized until it was recovered by Henry Russell and now is a familiar part of all our studies as the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. His use of absolute magnitudes will come into play tonight as we have a look at the sixth brightest star in the sky – Capella.

Now rising in the east at nightfall, Alpha Auriga is often called the “Goat Star” and is the nearest to the pole of all the first magnitude stars in the night sky. If it were not 45 light years away, it would be 160 times brighter than our own Sun! Like most stars, Capella is a multiple system that contains at least 4 members that are far too close to be resolved by our ordinary means.

While you’re out, be sure to turn your scope towards the Moon as old favourites – Posidonius, Theophilus, Cyrillus and Catherina – are waiting for you!

Sunday, October 9 – Tonight is the peak of the Draconid meteor shower whose radiant is near the westering constellation of Hercules. This particular shower can be quite impressive when comet Giacobinni-Zinner passes near Earth. When this happens, the fall rate jumps to 200 per hour and has even been known to reach 1000!

So what am I going to tell you that no one else has? Comet Giacobinni-Zinner reached perihelion on July 2nd of this year and is still less than 2 AU away. 😉

Until next week? May all your journeys be at light speed…. ~Tammy Plotner

M2. Image credit: Doug Williams/REU Program NOAO/AURA/NSF. Click to enlarge.
Monday, September 26 – Tonight our journey might seem like a simple one, but the rewards are great. First you must start by identifying bright Beta Aquarii about a fist’s width above the northeastern most corner star of Capricornus. Continue northward about another five degrees, because I’m going to introduce you to the M2.

First seen by Maraldi in 1746 and later cataloged by Messier in 1760, the M2 is easily seen in both binoculars and small telescopes. The awesome globular cluster is around 50,000 light years away, putting it far more distant than the M13, and it’s positioned in the general direction of our own galaxy’s southern pole. Containing at very least 100,000 stars, including red and yellow giants, even small optics will immediately pick up on the M2’s strong, bright core and larger scopes will resolve out an impressive amount of the fainter members. It’s a good one!

Tuesday, September 27 – Tonight’s destination is not an easy one, but if you have a 6″ or larger scope, you’ll fall in love a first sight! Let’s head for Eta Pegasi and slightly more than 4 degrees north/northeast for the NGC 7331.

This beautiful, 10th magnitude, tilted spiral galaxy is very much how our own Milky Way would appear if we could travel 50 million light years away and look back. Very similar in both structure to ourselves and the “Great Andromeda”, this particular galaxy gains more and more interest as scope size increases – yet it can be spotted with larger binoculars. At around 8″ in aperture, a bright core appears and the beginnings of wispy arms. In the 10″ to 12″ range, spiral patterns begin to emerge and with good seeing conditions, you can see “patchiness” in structure as nebulous areas are revealed and the western half is deeply outlined with a dark dustlane. But hang on… Because the best is yet to come!

Wednesday, September 28 – Tonight return to the NGC 7331 with all the aperture you have. What we are about to look at is truly a challenge and requires dark skies, optimal position and excellent conditions. Now breathe the scope about one half a degree south/southwest and behold one of the most famous galaxy clusters in the night.

In 1877, French astronomer – Edouard Stephan was using the first telescope designed with a reflection coated mirror when he discovered something a bit more with the NGC 7331. He found a group of nearby galaxies! This faint gathering of five is better known as “Stephan’s Quintet” and its members are no further apart than our own Milky Way galaxy.

Visually in a large scope, these members are all rather faint, but their proximity is what makes them such a curiosity. The Quintet is made up of five galaxies numbered NGC 7317, 7318, 7318A, 7318B, 7319 and the largest is 7320. Even with a 12.5″ telescope, this author has never seen them as much more than tiny, barely there objects that look like ghosts of rice grains on a dinner plate. So why bother?

What our backyard equipment can never reveal is what else exists within this area – more than 100 star clusters and several dwarf galaxies. Some 100 million years ago, the galaxies collided and left long streamers of their materials which created star forming regions of their own, and this tidal pull keeps them connected. The stars within the galaxies themselves are nearly a billion years old, but between them lay much younger ones. Although we cannot see them, you can make out the soft sheen of the galactic nucleii of our interacting group.

Enjoy their faint mystery!

Thursday, September 29 – Tonight let’s relax a little bit and have a look at a superb open cluster that stays superb no matter if you use small binoculars or a big telescope. Of whom do I speak so highly? M34…

Easily found on Perseus west border by scanning between Beta Perseii (Algol) and Gamma Andromeda (Almach), the M34 was discovered by Messier in 1764. Containing around 80 members, the central knot of stars is what truly makes it beautiful. At around 1400 light years away, this stellar collection is believed to be around 10 million years old. While binocular users are going to be very happy with this object, scopists are going to appreciate the fact that there is a double right in the heart of M34. This fixed pair is around magnitude 8 and separated by about 20″.

Friday, September 30 – Today in 1880, Henry Draper must have been up very early indeed when he took the first photo of the Great Orion Nebula (M42). Although you might not wish to set up equipment before dawn, you can still use a pair of binoculars to view this awesome nebula! You’ll find Orion high in the southeast for the Northern Hemisphere, and the M42 in the center of the “sword” that hangs below its bright “belt” of three stars.

While you’re out, take advantage of some very beautiful sky scenery. To the west, Mars dominates the sky as the brightest object and the Pleiades so nearby doubles the pleasure. More? Then look east and catch Saturn’s act and it still remains very close to the “Beehive”. All of these can be see with the unaided eye and make getting up early a pleasure!

Saturday, October 1 – In 1897, the world’s largest refractor (40″) debuted at the dedication of the University of Chicago’s Yerkes Observatory. Also today in 1958, NASA established by an act of Congress. More? In 1962, the 300-foot radio telescope of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) went live at Green Bank, West Virginia. It held its place as the world’s second largest radio scope until it collapsed in 1988.

One this universal date, viewers in Alaska will have the opportunity to watch the very last of the Moon occult Sigma Leonis. Be sure to check this IOTA webpage for times and locations.

For those of you who have waited on the weekend to enjoy dark skies, then let’s add another awesome galaxy to the collection. Tonight set your sights towards Alpha Pegasi and drop due south less than 5 degrees to pick up NGC 7479.

Discovered by William Herschel in 1784. this tantalizing 11 magnitude barred spiral galaxy has had a supernova in its nucleus as recently as 1990. While the 16th magnitude event is no longer visible, smaller telescopes will easily pick out bright core and elongation of the central bar. Larger aperture will find this one a real treat as the spiral arms curl both over and under the central structure, resembling a ballet dancer “en pointe”.

Congratulations! You’ve just observed Caldwell 44.

Sunday, October 2 – Do I always save the best for last? You bet. And tonight it’s my favourite galaxy structure – edge-on.

The NGC 7814 is easy enough to find. Just head towards Gamma Pegasi and look in your finderscope for a star that is around 3 degrees to the northwest. At low power you will see the galaxy to the southeast of this star as a scratch of light. Up the power in both aperture and magnification and enjoy! This galaxy has a deeply concentrated nucleus and a very prominent dissecting dark dustlane.

By the way… It’s Caldwell 43. 😉

Here’s hoping that all of you have clear, dark skies! Until next week? May all your journeys be at light speed…. ~Tammy Plotner

Cassini image of Saturn. Image credit: NASA/JPL. Click to enlarge.
Monday, September 19 – On this day in 1848, William Boyd was watching Saturn – and discovered its moon – Hyperion. If you’re up early this morning, why not take a look at the “Ring King”? It’s making a very spectacular pass through the constellation of Cancer right now and is wonderfully close to the M44! If you’re looking telescopically, be sure to power up for the Cassini Division and even small telescopes can spot its many moons.

Also today in 1988, Israel launched its first satellite. How long has it been since you’ve watched an ISS pass or an iridium flare? Both are terrific events that don’t require any special equipment to be seen. Be sure to check with Heaven’s Above for accurate times and passes in your location and enjoy!

Since we will only have a short time until the Moon rises tonight, let’s follow the progress of a variable star over the next week. Eta Aquilae is one of the most fascinating stars in the sky to watch and it doesn’t even require a telescope. Just look less than one fist-width due south of Altair…

Discovered by Pigot in 1784, this cepheid class variable has a precision change rate of over a magnitude in a period of 7.17644 days. During this time it will reach of maximum of magnitude 3.7 and decline slowly over 5 days to a minimum of 4.5… Yet it only takes two days to brighten again! This period of expansion and contraction makes Eta very unique. To help gauge these changes, compare Eta to Beta on Altair’s same southeast side. When Eta is at maximum, it will be about equal in brightness.

Tuesday, September 20 – On this night in 1948, the 48″ Schmidt telescope at Mt. Palomoar was busy taking pictures. The first photographic plate was being exposed on a galaxy by the same man who ground and polished the corrector plate for this scope – Hendricks. His object of choice was reproduced as panel 18 in the Hubble Atlas of Galaxies and tonight we’ll join his vision as we take a look at the fantastic M31 – Andromeda Galaxy.

Seasoned amateur astronomers can literally point to the sky and show you the location of the M31, but perhaps you have never tried. Believe it or not, this is an easy galaxy to see unaided from even a modest dark sky site. Simply look to the east well after twilight and identify the large diamond-shaped pattern of stars that stretches around a handspan. This is the “Great Square of Pegasus”. The northernmost star is Alpha, and it is here we will begin our hop. Stay with the north chain of stars and look four finger-widths away for an easily seen star. The next along the chain is about three finger-widths away… And we’re almost there. Two more finger-widths to the north and you will see a dimmer star that looks like it has something smudgy nearby. That’s no cloud… That’s the Andromeda Galaxy. Congratulations. You didn’t even need a telescope.

Now get out those optics and enjoy one of the finest, largest and brightest in the sky!

Wednesday, September 21 – With plenty of time to spare before the Moon rises tonight, let’s head on to Capricornus and drop about four finger-widths south of its northeastern most star – Delta – and have a look at M30.

Discovered in 1764 by Charles Messier, binocular observers will spot this small, but attractive, globular cluster easily in the same field with star 41. For telescopic observers, you will find a dense core region and many chains of resolvable stars in this 40,000 light year distant object. Power up.

Tonight, watch as the Moon rises about two hours after sunset. Around a half hour later, you will see Mars join the show as well.

Thursday, September 22 – Today is the Autumnal Equinox, and will occur at 6:23 p.m. EDT. This marks the first day of the Fall season for the Northern Hemisphere and we astronomers welcome back earlier dark skies!

On this universal date for viewers in Hawaii, and most portions of Australia and New Zealand, the Moon will occult one of the Plieades’ stars – Alcyone. What a great event! Be sure to check this IOTA webpages for times in your area.

Now let’s get some more practice in Capricornus, as tonight we’ll take on a more challenging target with confidence. Locate the centermost bright star in the northern half of the constellation – Theta – because we’re headed for the “Saturn Nebula”.

Three finger-widths north of Theta you will see dimmer Nu, and only one finger-width west is NGC 7009. Nicknamed the “Saturn Nebula”, this wonderful blue planetary is around 8th magnitude and achievable in small scopes and large binoculars. Even at moderate magnification, you will see the elliptical shape which gave rise to its moniker. With larger scopes, those “ring like” projections become even clearer, making this challenging object well worth the hunt. You can do it!

Friday, September 23 – Check out the western skyline tonight about a half hour after sunset. The bright planet – Jupiter – is now almost lost, but in 1846 on this day, Johann Galle of the Berlin Observatory found another. This was the first time that Neptune was seen and identified visually.

Thanks to tonight’s much darker skies, you too, will have the same opportunity. Start by identifying Theta once again. Two finger-widths away to the northeast is dim star 29. Now, using your binoculars or finderscope, between them you will see another star and this is our marker. When you have located that star, Neptune is just to its northeast and will be the brightest object in the field with the exception of our marker star. It’s just that easy!

On this day in 1962, the prime time cartoon “The Jetsons” first premiered. Think of all the technology this inspired as tonight we kick back to watch the Alpha Aurigid meteor shower. Relax, face northeast and look for the radiant near Capella. The fall rate is around 12 per hour, and they are fast and leave trails!

Saturday, September 24 – In 1970, the first unmanned, automated return of lunar material to the Earth occurred on this day when the Soviet’s Luna 16 returned with three ounces of the Moon. If we think back, the lowest passing of that Moon to the south occured not long ago. By tomorrow morning it will have reached its highest point just before the Sun rises and will be nearly overhead.

For viewers in Northern Europe, the Moon will occult bright star 136 Taurii on this universal date. Be sure to check this IOTA webpages for a listing of times and locations in your area.

For the rest of us, we’ve got around four hours to play before the Moon brightens the skies. So, are we ready to try for the “Helix”?

Located in a sparsely populated area of the sky, this intriguing target is about a fist width due northwest of bright Formalhaut and about a fingerwidth west of Upsilon Aquarii. While the NGC 7293 is also a planetary nebula, its entirely different than most… It’s a very large and more faded edition of the M57! On a clear, dark night it can be spotted with binoculars since it spans almost one quarter a degree of sky. Using a telescope, stay at lowest power and widest field, because it is so large. It you have an OIII filter, this faded “ring” becomes a braided treat!

Sunday, September 25 – Now, are you ready for something really exciting? There’s a new comet in town and its name is 2005/P3 SWAN. At close to magnitude 10, this is not a comet you are going to see in binoculars or a small telescope, but for those with larger instruments and a northern position, you are going to like this!

Now, mind you… Ursa Major is now a morning constellation for most of us, but 2005/P3 SWAN will be mixing it up with both the Owl Nebula and the M108! The predicted path charts put it about 1 degree southeast of the M97. Happy Hunting!

The skies are getting darker and the times are getting earlier. Let the galaxy hunt begin! Until next week, may all your journeys be at light speed…. ~Tammy Plotner