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Scientifically speaking, where is the best place on the Moon to set up a colony for research? Hands down, it has to be the Moon’s south pole. Mountainous areas near the rim of Shackelton Crater provide areas of almost continual sunlight, meaning solar power would be constantly available. In addition, the shadowed craters are in constant darkness and may hold water ice, a potential water supply that would be a vital resource for any lunar base. Plus it would be a great place to set up a lunar telescope. Recently, three-dimensional views of this region were released by the European Space Agency, taken by the SMART-1 spacecraft, providing unprecedented details of what has been called the “Peak of Eternal Light.” Moon base designers, take a look…
This image from the Clementine mission shows seven possible colony sites on the Moon’s south pole. Circled in red the highest mountain, the so-called “Peak of Eternal Light.”
View of “Peak of Eternal Light”. The Shackleton Crater is just off the image on the right hand side. Potential landing site 4 from the Clementine mosaic is on the left hand ridge of the peak. The small crater in the centre of the image is about 1 kilometre across. Credit: ESA/SMART-1/Space-X (Space Exploration Institute)
The images were taken by the AMIE camera on board the SMART-1, which has since plunged into the moon’s surface in a planned crash in 2006. The camera team has been working with the data to create digital elevation model of the peaks.
“AMIE is not a stereo camera, so producing a 3-D model of the surface has been a challenge,” said researcher Dr. Detlef Koschny. “We’ve used a technique where we use the brightness of reflected light to determine the slope and, by comparing several images, put together a model that produces a shadow pattern that matches those observed by SMART-1.” View of “Peak of Eternal Light” from the rim of the Shackleton Crater. The peak is along the ridge in the centre of the image. The possible landing sites 1 & 2 from the Clementine mosaic are in the bottom right hand corner of the image. Credit: ESA/SMART-1/Space-X (Space Exploration Institute)
AMIE took a total of 113 images of the peak, located close to the rim of the Shackleton Crater. The team, led by Dr Bjorn Grieger of ESA’s European Space Astronomy Centre in Madrid, took five of the best images showing the peak illuminated from different angles. They mapped all the pixels onto a grid, defining the bright and dark areas. The data from the five images were then compared to produce estimates of the slope angles and the rendered elevation model was iteratively adjusted to produce a shadow match. The original AMIE images were then projected onto the retrieved model. To clearly visualise the topography, the elevation has been exaggerated five times. Here’s the elevation map: Digital elevation map. Credit: ESA/SMART-1/Space-X (Space Exploration Institute
Artist concept of a fission surface power system on the surface of the moon. Credit: NASA
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When astronauts return to the moon for long duration missions, they will need reliable sources of power. Solar energy will be plentiful for the 14 Earth-day- long lunar daytime, but what about the equally as long lunar night? NASA engineers are exploring the possibility of nuclear fission to provide the necessary power. If you’re having visions of a Three Mile Island nuclear reactor on the moon, put your fears to rest. A nuclear reactor used in space is much different than Earth-based systems, says Lee Mason of the NASA Glenn Research Center, who is the principal investigator for testing a fission powered system for the moon. There are no large concrete cooling towers, and the reactor is about the size of an office trash can. Of course, it won’t produce as much energy as the big reactors on Earth, but it should be more than adequate for the projected power needs of a lunar outpost.
“Our goal is to build a technology demonstration unit with all the major components of a fission surface power system and conduct non-nuclear, integrated system testing in a ground-based space simulation facility,” said Mason. “Our long-term goal is to demonstrate technical readiness early in the next decade, when NASA is expected to decide on the type of power system to be used on the lunar surface.”
A fission surface power system on the moon has the potential to generate a steady 40 kilowatts of electric power, enough for about eight houses on Earth. It works by splitting uranium atoms in a reactor to generate heat that then is converted into electric power. The fission surface power system can produce large amounts of power in harsh environments, like those on the surface of the moon or Mars, because it does not rely on sunlight. The primary components of fission surface power systems are a heat source, power conversion, heat rejection and power conditioning, and distribution.
Glenn recently contracted for the design and analysis of two different types of advanced power conversion units as an early step in the development of a full system-level technology demonstration. These power conversion units are necessary to process the heat produced by the nuclear reactor and efficiently convert it to electrical power.
Two different companies have designed concepts that can produce a total of 12 kilowatts of power. One uses piston engines and the other a high speed turbine coupled with a rotary alternator.
“Development and testing of the power conversion unit will be a key factor in demonstrating the readiness of fission surface power technology and provide NASA with viable and cost-effective options for nuclear power on the moon and Mars,” said Don Palac, manager of Glenn’s Fission Surface Power Project.
A contractor will be selected after a year of design and analysis. Testing of the non-nuclear system is expected to take place in 2012 or 2013 to verify the performance and safety of the systems and determine if these systems can easily be used on the moon, or even on Mars.
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Last year, students from Rhode Island School of Design (RISD) were set one of the best coursework projects I’ve ever heard of. The project title was called “Design for extreme environments” and it was sponsored by NASA. By extreme environments, we are talking about the Moon, and by design, we are talking about arriving at new concepts as to how to prevent lunar dust contamination inside future lunar habitats. Since the task was first set, the enthusiastic RSID team have arrived at a concept that NASA will be using in the planning of the 2020 return to the lunar surface…
The Moon is a dirty place. During the Apollo missions, dust from the lunar surface got everywhere. The biggest problem for astronauts came when the tiny, sharp shards of regolith (pulverized bits of rock from billions of years of meteorite impacts) was disturbed by the moon buggy as the lunar explorers travelled across the dusty surface. One event in particular stands out as the problems lunar dust can cause. In 1972, Apollo 17 astronauts Gene Cernan and Jack Schmitt had accidentally damaged the wheel arch of their moon buggy. The result was a dreaded “rooster tail” was they drove, kicking up dust into the vacuum, causing it to cover everything, including spacesuit visors. This would lead to vision impairment, scratches of the protective visor coating and ultimately respiratory problems when transported inside the lunar module (“LEM”). Fortunately Cernan and Schmitt managed to repair their moon buggy with a roll of duct tape, possibly saving the lunar surface mission.
Lunar dust contamination covering Apollo 17 astronaut Eugene Cernan inside the lunar module after an EVA (NASA)
Moon dust contamination was inevitable however, even inside the sealed LEM. So, with the possibility of extended manned exploration of the Moon and Mars from the year 2020, NASA is re-evaluating the challenges astronauts will face when combating this potentially dangerous foe. Many scientists are especially worried about the health of manned settlements should lunar dust be allowed into habitats. Breathing the stuff in could be as dangerous as breathing in asbestos. When working with the dusty cancer-causing material down here on Earth, specialist breathing apparatus must be worn at all times. If this were to be the case on the Moon, to fight the health risks associated with breathing in moon dust, short-term and long-term damage could be inflicted on the young colony.
This is where the RISD project comes in. In preparation for a possible manned return to the Moon in just over a decade, NASA decided to tap into the ingenuity of students from the design school to arrive at some novel ideas as to how eliminate the risk of letting lunar dust into a future moon buggy. Several design and engineering students and graduates from RISD’s Industrial Design Department took part in a RISD/NASA research internship focusing on elements of a future lunar module – the descent stage, habitat and ascent stage. The 2007 summer internship focused on the dust problem.
The RISD designers demonstrate their mock-up airlock concept (RISD)
The students investigated a “suitlock” design, an airlock that uses the astronauts’ space suits as part of the operation to remove any contaminants. To make access to the lunar surface quick and routine, the research focused on using an existing rear-entry space suit that would be stored inside an air- and dust-tight seal, but the astronauts would be able to slide into the suit whilst keeping the suit itself separate from the habitat interior. To see how the RISD concept works, view the full-scale mock-up video of the demonstration session.
The RISD concept was taken from paper and consolidated into a full-scale rigid mock up. The design can now be evaluated by NASA for possible inclusion in the future exploration of the Moon. This project for the RISD interns is obviously a valuable experience for the students taking their vision and turning it into a “real-world” application, but NASA has the chance to learn from the fertile imaginations of design and engineering graduates, possibly taking the exploration of space in an unexpected but advantageous direction…
Meteor strike on Moon recorded by Robert Spellman on August 9, 2008
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Meteor showers are great fun. The streaks and flashes create a special type of astronomical fireworks. But there are some people out there who enjoy meteor showers in a different way. They don’t watch the meteors. Instead, they watch the moon. There are fireworks there, too, in the form of explosions — equivalent to about 100 pounds of TNT — when meteors hit the lunar surface.
On August 9th, during the Perseid meteor shower, a couple of amateur astronomers fixed their cameras on the Moon and watched meteoroids slam into the lunar surface. Silent explosions produced flashes of light visible a quarter of a million miles away on Earth. It was a good night for “lunar Perseids.” Meteor strike on the moon imaged by George Varros.
“I love watching meteor showers this way,” says George Varros, who recorded the impact shown above from his home in Mt. Airy, Maryland. The flash, which lit up a nighttime patch of Mare Nubium (the Sea of Clouds), was a bit dimmer than 7th magnitude, which Varros said was “an easy target for my 8-inch telescope and low-light digital video camera.”
Hours later, another Perseid struck, on the western shore of Oceanus Procellarum (the Ocean of Storms). This time it was Robert Spellman of Azusa, California, who caught the flash. “It’s exciting to witness these explosions in real time,” he says. “I used a 10-inch telescope and an off-the-shelf Supercircuits video camera.” Spellman has a website about his observations.
NASA’s Meteoroid Environment Office watches the moon during meteor showers, too. Rob Suggs at the Marshall Space Flight Center and his team have recorded more than 100 lunar explosions since 2005. “We monitor lunar meteors in support of NASA’s return to the Moon,” Suggs says. “The Moon has no atmosphere to protect the surface, so meteoroids crash right into the ground. Our program aims to measure how often that happens and answer the question, what are the risks to astronauts?”
But NASA’s official lunar meteor observatories in Alabama and Georgia were both off-line on August 9, so the NASA team didn’t see how many Perseids were hitting the Moon that night.
“This shows how amateur astronomers can contribute to our research,” points out Suggs. “We can’t observe the Moon 24-7 from our corner of the USA. Clouds, sunlight, the phase of the Moon—all these factors limit our opportunities. A global network of amateur astronomers monitoring the Moon could, however, approach full coverage.”
Suggs hopes other amateurs will take up this hobby of watching the moon during meteor showers, not only to improve NASA’s lunar impact statistics, but also to support the agency’s LCROSS mission: In 2009, the Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) will intentionally dive into the Moon, producing a flash akin to a natural lunar meteor. Unlike natural meteoroids, which hit the Moon in random locations, LCROSS will carefully target a polar crater containing suspected deposits of frozen water. If all goes as planned, the impact will launch debris high above the lunar surface where astronomers can search the ejecta for signs of H2O. The impact flash (if not hidden by crater walls) and the debris plume may be visible to backyard telescopes on Earth. Here’s more details on the LCROSS impact.
If you’re interested in watching for meteor impacts on the moon, NASA has a FAQ page, and telescope tips.
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India will send their first mission to the Moon in September. Chandrayaan-1 has been built and will be launched from Indian soil and sent on a mission to study the lunar surface. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) will use its highly successful Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) to get the lunar probe into space. This is an impressive mission for a small space agency, making huge strides in the exploration of space…
It seems like everybody is doing it these days. First, Russia did it (in 1959) by landing a probe on the lunar surface and taking pictures of the far side of the Moon. Then the Soviets put the first artificial lunar satellite into orbit in 1966. Not to be out done, President Kennedy had already begun the US quest to get man on the Moon, and in 1969 the superpower achieved that goal. For a long time it was only the two competitors in the Space Race who had visited the Moon, but in 1990, Japan joined the “Lunar Club” (with the Hiten spacecraft). Then in 1997 Hong Kong (China) succeeded in two flybys (HGS-1, a commercial satellite). Eventually, in 2006, the European SMART-1 space vehicle made it into lunar orbit. But since then, it’s been China (with the Chang’e program) and Japan (with SELENE, or “Kaguya”) who have been most active around the natural satellite.
And now there is a new kid on the block: India. One of the most populous nations in the world is pushing ahead with its own aspirations for lunar exploration. Although comparatively small, the Indian space agency ISRO was established in 1972 to develop space-based technologies in the aim of enriching the nation’s economy. Until the early 1990’s, India had to rely on Russia to launch payloads into space, but 1994 saw the first successful launch of the powerful Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), lifting domestic and commercial satellites into orbit. Now the PSLV will launch India’s most valuable payload yet, the Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter and impactor. It is scheduled for launch on September 19th.
In a speech on India’s 61st Independence Day from the historic Red Fort in Delhi, the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh called the Chandrayaan-1 mission “an important milestone” for the nation. However, although a date has been set for launch, some of the text seemed a little uncertain. “This year we hope to send an Indian spacecraft, Chandrayan, to the moon. It will be an important milestone in the development of our space programme,” Singh said. Whether the “we hope” was accidental or whether the launch date is only tentative remains to be seen.
Regardless, the mission appears to be good to go, obviously a huge boost to national pride. “I want to see a modern India, imbued by a scientific temper, where the benefits of modern knowledge flow to all sections of society,” he continued.
Dinner. The heros from Fly Me to the Moon are on the menu
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On August 3rd, the new animated movie “Fly Me to the Moon” premiered at the Directors Guild of America Theatre in Hollywood, LA. In a very fortunate turn of events Fraser sent me there to watch the first US screening of this “made for 3D” space-exploration adventure. I’ve been bursting to write a review on the experience, but I had to wait until the film went on general release on August 15th before I could spill the beans. Now the day has come, here’s the inside story of this visually stunning tale about three flies (yes, the insects) that hitch a ride on the 1969 Apollo 11 mission to the Moon…
Firstly, I have to say nWave 3D technology is astonishing. The company uses 3D stereoscopy technique to, quite literally, make the characters in the movie jump out of the screen (with the help of polarizing glasses). If you’ve been to an IMAX theatre or a digital 3D studio before, you’ll know what I’m talking about, the characters look solid and very real. This was my first 3D experience, so I’m glad it was a space adventure experience too. OK, I’ve never reviewed a movie before, so I hope I do it justice…
Right at the start of the animated adventure, we begin with some history. In faux black-and-white, we are in one of NASA’s labs, preparing a monkey for an experimental trip into space. It is the late 1950’s or early 1960’s when it was commonplace to launch animals into space. So far, so good. The 3D looks good, and the 3D characters look crisp, looks like we’re in for a fun 84 minutes (the kids in the audience had a good laugh at the monkey’s expense as he was launched into space, the director was careful not to indicate the primate may not return!).
But the film, nor the 3D animation, had really begun. Part of the opening sequence, in colour now, involves a long sweep over Cape Canaveral, with the Saturn V rocket central to the scene. Moving over the water, your eyes take a while to focus on the shapes; you need to learn to relax your focus and treat the screen with more depth (especially when wearing a pair of unfashionable polarizing 3D glasses). Suddenly a dragonfly flies into shot and the 3D effect pops into being. There was no one in the audience who didn’t jump; the insect looked as if it was two feet away from your face, hovering above the seat in front (I was ten rows back from the screen). The kids in the audience (plus me) reached out to touch the animated creature, only for our hands to pass in front. Its effects like this that typifies the whole film, long tracking shots, 3D characters jumping out of the screen, vibrant colours bringing crisp clarity to each shot. Without the nWave 3D, the characters would probably be pretty bland, after all this doesn’t have the gravitas of a Disney-Pixar or Dreamworks production.
Sometimes you realise that the director wants you to experience everything the nWave technology can provide, sometimes making the fly-point-of-view flying sequences a little too long, but still delivering a visual delight. Unfortunately, this is probably the biggest drawback of the movie. Languishing in wonderful animated sequences, but filling the time with a basic script where even the rendered characters can seem a little wooden. I think the director misses the mark a little when trying to build up an audience rapport with the central characters; you find yourself thinking “get to the Apollo 11 launch already!”
That said, the youngsters in the crowd thoroughly enjoyed the antics of the three young flies: Nat (sensible yet adventurous, voiced by Trevor Gagnon), I.Q. (brainy and geeky, voiced by Philip Bolden) and Scooter (loud and brash, voiced by David Gore), it’s just a shame nWave didn’t build a little dual-humour into the plot which the likes of Toy Story or Finding Nemo were so good at (where a joke means one thing to an adult, but something totally different to a child – after all, you can only have so many burp jokes). But, this is a poor comparison; Fly Me to the Moon isn’t in the same league as these blockbusters. There is more of a focus on the big, space scene animation rather than plot or script. The 3D animated space sequences are what make this film, most certainly beating anything Pixar or Dreamworks can generate on a 2D screen.
For the first 20 minutes or so, we are based in the flies’ world; in the undergrowth and in the air, but as the story develops the fun really begins to start. Once Nat and co. find a way to join the Apollo 11 astronauts (after some entertaining encouragement from Nat’s Grampa, voiced by Christopher Lloyd, or “Doc” from his 1980’s Back to the Future fame), we arrive at some of the most visually stunning rendered scenes I have seen in an animated feature. For starters, the Saturn V lift-off is detailed with painstaking accuracy, reminiscent of Tom Hanks’ Apollo 13 launch sequence, only a little cleaner. As the rocket blasts through the atmosphere (probably a little too quickly for my liking), we’re suddenly in space and the Saturn V begins separation of its first stage. My second favourite part of the whole movie is the separation and re-docking of the lunar module whilst in lunar orbit, this will probably the closet you will come to actually “being there.” If you see the movie for one thing and one thing only, go and watch it for the wonderfully executed space vehicle scenes.
During the Apollo 11 voyage, the fly trio have a lot of work on their hands. For starters, mission control discover they have “contaminants” on board the command module, so throughout the film our miniature heroes are trying to dodge Armstrong’s bug spray can. There are some funny scenes, mainly focused around the always hungry Scooter, voiced by the very talented David Gore (although the “wind breaking escape scene” was a bridge too far for me). Nat, I.Q. and Scooter were also responsible for fixing a glitch in the Apollo 11 control panel apparently, replacing unplugged cable, leaving the crew to think they repaired the electrical fault. All the way through their adventure, the trio are being watched by their anxious Moms on Earth, managing to catch a glimpse of their young explorers via NASA footage (Nat’s mom, voiced by Kelly Ripa, constantly fainting and exclaiming “Lord of the Flies!” when ever a crisis unfolds; funny the first time, a bit tiresome after the third). There are also some evil Soviet Russian flies on Earth trying to undo the American flies space efforts; of course there needed to be a few “bad guys” (which, unfortunately, were surplus to requirements. If it wasn’t for the buxom Russian love interest, Nadia, there would be no point in including any baddies). The 1960’s era is captured wonderfully however, down to the fashion and music at the time.
Although this is obviously aimed at a younger audience, the stunning in-space animations will keep the 15+ crowd interested. And the entire movie is worth it for the famous Moon landing. There are a few technical inaccuracies, but they pass largely unnoticed as the astronauts touch down and Armstrong says his famous speech (although the producers did not use the archival transmission of Armstrong’s “One Small Step For Man…” line, which I thought was a strange decision). I really did feel excited by the lunar landing, seeing the command module in orbit, lunar module landing (“The Eagle has landed”) and animated Buzz and Neil hopping around in the Moon dust; it (almost) felt you were there.
All in all, this is a wonderfully valuable animated film that will engage kids more than adults, but it certainly isn’t boring, in fact, the time flew by. The fight sequences are too long and contrived, and a lot of the script is weak, but the voice talent is superb (especially Christopher Lloyd as “Grampa,” the lovely Nicolette Sheridan as “Nadia,” legendary British actor Tim Curry as evil “Yegor” and the young fly trio voices) and the 3D effects are incredible. Watching this movie was more of an “experience” than anything else, and although I felt my eyes getting a little tired from the changing focal depth for 84 minutes, the wonderful animated set-pieces kept me hooked.
Space exploration needs movies like this to engage and interest the next generation, and with cameo appearances by the likes of Buzz Aldrin only make movies like Fly Me to the Moon more valuable. Right at the end of the movie, Buzz makes an entertaining speech. Starting off with ‘Despite what you might have heard about the Moon landings…’ I thought he was referring to the flawed allegations of the faked NASA lunar landings, but he humorously continued, ‘…there were no contaminants on Apollo 11, flies did not land on the Moon!‘
Buzz Aldrin, ex-astronaut, second man on the Moon and all-round nice guy (Ian O'Neill)
The best thing about the whole premier experience was to meet and chat to the legendary astronaut himself, such a polite and friendly guy who has a lot of time for fans, reporters and photographers. I also met Tim Curry, an actor I’ve enjoyed for many years, ever since his infamous appearance in the 1975 cult classic “The Rocky Horror Picture Show.” Most of the rest of the cast was there for the screening, including the young voice talents (Gagnon, Bolden and Gore) with Nicolette Sheridan (famed for her Desperate Housewives character), Christopher Lloyd, Kelly Ripa (“Nat’s Mom”), Adrienne Barbeau (“Scooter’s Mom”) and Ed Begley Jr. (“Poopchev”), and probably quite a few I didn’t see. Besides, the after party was fun, involving lots of ice cream and cookies…
So, if you want to see a fun and wonderfully animated film with lots of entertainment for your kids, this is the film for you. Although some of the dialogue can be a little cringe-making, with fight sequences too long and “cheesy,” the animation makes up for many of these flaws, making this an entertaining family animation that can only help boost enthusiasm for space travel in the younger generation. Interestingly, the 10-year old sitting next to me in the screening asked his dad, “Why aren’t we still on the Moon?” At least Fly Me to the Moon has already gotten one young mind thinking…
…also, you’ll never look at maggots in the same light ever again…
As Nat, I.Q. and Scooter would say: “Adventure forever! Dreamers get swatted? Never!”
Fly Me to the Moon is now on general release in the US and Canada, but only in IMAX and 3D digital theatres.
Moonbase rover concept - could be used for long-term missions (NASA)
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NASA’s first man to orbit the Earth, John Glenn has said a plan to set up a Moon base to facilitate the manned exploration of interplanetary space is a very bad idea. Under the current US government direction, NASA hopes to (eventually) establish the manned outpost for future launches to Mars and beyond, thus avoiding the huge gravity well of the Earth. But Glenn has cited the plan as “questionable,” pointing out that to pack the huge amount of equipment on board the future Ares V rocket will be “enormously expensive.” So what’s the alternative? Build a vehicle in Earth orbit and accelerate it to the Red Planet…
Legendary astronaut and former senator John Glenn isn’t one to keep his opinions to himself, especially when the future of the US space agency is on the line. Back in May, Glenn sent a strong message to Washington: Extend the life of the Shuttle and re-commit to long-term investment in the International Space Station (after all, extending the Shuttle’s lifetime is a bit better than some of the alternatives). His warnings come at a time when there is increased concern about NASA’s “five-year gap” in its ability to ferry astronauts into space from Shuttle decommissioning in 2010 and first scheduled Orion module/Ares rocket launch in 2015. Glenn is not the only ex-astronaut speaking out about NASA’s future. Buzz Aldrin, second man on the Moon and Apollo 11 lunar module pilot, also came forward in June with his worries that NASA will be overtaken by the space efforts of the international community.
So why is John Glenn against the establishment of a lunar base? He was addressing US President George Bush’s vision to set up a Moon base so it can be prepared as a launch pad to further explore space. “It seems to me the moon is questionable as a way station [to Mars],” Glenn said when addressing a congressional committee on July 30th. The hearing was held for a House Science and Technology Committee, in light of NASA’s 50 years of operation and future direction of the agency. “If that’s what we’re doing – which I don’t believe it is – but if that’s what we’re thinking about doing, that is enormously expensive,” he continued. From a financial standpoint, such a lunar outpost will be prohibitively expensive as thousands of tonnes of equipment will need to be launched to the Earth’s only natural satellite.
The alternative would be to build a large space vehicle in Earth orbit and then accelerate it toward Mars, bypassing the need for a lunar outpost. “That to me would be the cheapest way to go,” he added.
Hi-Res Phobos. Credits: ESA/ DLR/ FU Berlin (G. Neukum)
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On July 23, Europe’s Mars Express spacecraft flew only 93 kilometers from Mars’ moon Phobos, and took the most detailed images ever of the small, irregular moon. Additionally, the spacecraft made other close flybys during the past few weeks, and creating a variety of images. The moon’s grooved surface can be seen in the pictures quite clearly, but the origin of the grooves is not known. They could have been formed by ejecta thrown up from impacts on Mars, or if they could be caused by internal fissures result from the surface regolith, or soil, slipping into internal fissures. Whatever the cause, enjoy these new hi-resolution images of Phobos.
Phobos flyby. Credits: ESA/ DLR/ FU Berlin (G. Neukum)
The best images taken by Mars Express have a resolution of 3.7 m/pixel and are taken in five channels different channels to create 3-D images, and to analyze the physical properties of the surface. Measuring 27 km × 22 km × 19 km, Phobos is one of the least reflective objects in the Solar System, thought to be a capture-asteroid or a remnant of the material that formed the planets.
A Russian sample return mission called Phobos-Grunt (Phobos soil), is scheduled to launch in 2009. It is expected to land on the far-side of Phobos at a region between 5° south to 5° north, and 230° west to 235° west. This region was last imaged in the 1970s by the Viking orbiters. The inset here shows potential landing sites for the Russian mission. Phobos. Credits: ESA/ DLR/ FU Berlin (G. Neukum)
The images obtained by several other spacecraft so far have either been of a lower resolution, or not available in 3D and have not covered the entire disc of Phobos. This is also the first time that portions of the far-side of the moon have been imaged in such high resolution (Phobos always faces Mars on the same side). Mars Express’ High Resolution Camera (HRSC) Super-resolution channel (SRC) image taken on 22 July 2008 from a distance of 4500 km, showing the illuminated edge of the potential landing site of the Russian Phobos-Grunt mission. Phobos in 3-D. Credits: ESA/ DLR/ FU Berlin (G. Neukum)
The imaging team is still working on producing additional images of the moon, including more in 3-D like this one. Managing the close fly-bys was an operational challenge, made possible by spacecraft operations engineers and scientists who worked together to specially optimise Mars Express’s trajectory and obtain the best possible views.
Astronaut Eugene Cernan from Apollo 17, the last mission to the Moon (NASA)
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NASA has signed a landmark agreement to collaborate with emerging space-faring nations for the exploration of the Moon. This collaboration will include Canada, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Britain and France in the aim to work with NASA developing new technologies and send a series of robotic exploratory missions to pave the way for a manned return mission. The director of NASA’s planetary science division points out that these eight member states are keen to send their first astronauts to the lunar surface. Whilst some may view this collaboration as an attempt by NASA to ‘spread the cost’ of space travel (especially in the current climate of budget cuts), the main point of this deal is to make manned missions to the Moon more of an international effort. This will give smaller space agencies more opportunities, boost the quality of the science that can be achieved and possibly lead us to some answers about how life formed on Earth 4 billion years ago…
The deal was brokered at NASA’s Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, last Thursday, and it is expected to be finalized tomorrow. The meeting took place during the largest Moon-specific conference since the US Apollo missions, highlighting the recent drive to get man back to the lunar surface. NASA had already allocated significant funding toward four manned landers, but scientists have asked for eight, so an international collaboration is required so adequate science can be carried out.
At the centre of this renewed vigour is the quest to understand how life was kick-started on Earth. From recent analysis of Apollo rocks brought back to Earth in the 1970’s, it is thought that the early Solar System was a violent place. Scientists believe this planetary chaos may be the root cause of life on Earth; analysing the lunar surface is critical so a better picture may be created of the Earth-Moon system billions of years ago.
“What’s happening right now is that a revolution in planetary science is going on. We are taking these small pieces and we are starting to put together the puzzle, and we are surprised by what we find.” – James Green, Director of NASA’s Planetary Science Division.
Why is the Moon so special anyway? Surely most of the answers can be found down here on Earth? Well, that’s not entirely correct. The Moon is an open history book of the Solar System’s evolution. Its surface has not been altered by plate tectonics, volcanoes or atmospheric erosion processes (unlike the terrestrial surface); ancient events are etched in its rock, waiting to be read by future lunar explorers. This was the conclusion reached by National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences last year. From the evidence stored in lunar rock, it is hoped that the “terminal cataclysm hypothesis” may be proven or disproved. This theory suggests that Uranus and Neptune once orbited within the orbit of Jupiter. The cataclysm occurred when the powerful Jovian gravitational field flung the smaller gas giants to the outer reaches of the Solar System.
But where is the Earth-Moon connection? This turmoil in the Solar System will have displaced huge numbers of asteroids and comets, scattering them toward the inner planets. This event may have been the trigger of the “late heavy bombardment” between 3.8 to 4 billion years ago which coincided with the formation of life on Earth. This period of time can be studied in great depth on the Moon.
This increased interest in lunar science and the emergence of Japan, China and India create an opportunity NASA will not want to miss. This new international collaboration may be exactly what NASA needs to invigorate funding and help us understand how life was sparked on our blue planet.
Future astronauts may use GPS-like system. Credit: The Ohio State University
During the second moonwalk of the Apollo 14 mission, Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell were hoping to walk to the 300 meter (1,000 feet) wide Cone Crater on the moon, not far from their landing site. However, the two astronauts were not able to find the crater’s rim amid the rolling, repetitive terrain. Later analysis using pictures the two astronauts took determined they had come within 65 feet of the crater. People are used to having certain visual cues to judge distances, such as the size of a building or another car on the horizon, said Ron Li, who has been awarded a $1.2 million grant to develop a navigation system to be used on the moon. Since the moon has no landmarks or cues to help determine distance, getting lost, or misjudging a distant object’s size and location would be easy, and extremely dangerous. New technology like sensors, inertial navigation systems, cameras, computer processors, and image processors will make the next trip to the moon easier for astronauts.
Li, from The Ohio State University, developed software for the Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity, which has helped him learn a lot about navigation. The navigation system to help future astronauts find their way around moon won’t use satellites; instead the system will rely on signals from a set of sensors including lunar beacons, stereo cameras, and orbital imaging sensors.
Images taken from orbit will be combined with images from the surface to create maps of lunar terrain. Motion sensors on lunar vehicles and on the astronauts themselves will allow computers to calculate their locations. Signals from lunar beacons, the lunar lander, and base stations will give astronauts a picture of their surroundings similar to what drivers see when using a GPS device on Earth. The researchers have named the entire system the Lunar Astronaut Spatial Orientation and Information System (LASOIS).
Astronauts will have a keypad and screen, possibly right on their spacesuits, to view their location and search for new destinations.
Keeping astronauts safe will be a top priority for Li’s team, which includes experts in psychology and human-computer interaction as well as engineering.
“We will help with navigation, but also with astronauts’ health as well,” Li said. “We want them to avoid the stress of getting lost, or getting frustrated with the equipment. Lunar navigation isn’t just a technology problem, it’s also biomedical.”
